Buildings of the Roman Empire. Famous architectural monuments of ancient rome

Roman! You learn to rule the nations sovereignly. This is your art! - to impose the conditions of peace. Mercy to the submissive to show and humble the arrogant by war.

Ancient Rome. Hundreds of articles and books have been written about him. And this is not surprising, since there are few states that would have left such a bright mark in the history of world civilization and bequeathed to their descendants such a huge cultural heritage... Its significance as a great treasury of knowledge that moves humanity forward is truly enormous.

It is not surprising that our generation is increasingly turning to Ancient Rome, while not only to the history of culture, architecture, law and military affairs, but also to the history of its technology, in particular the technique and technology of construction production, where much attention was paid to concrete construction ...

Concrete could develop and become widespread only in such a strong and huge state as was Ancient Rome with its large volumes of construction work, including the construction of thousands of amphitheaters, stadiums, thermal baths, powerful fortress walls or the famous Roman roads stretching for a thousand kilometers across the whole country and beyond. The emergence of Roman concrete reflected the growing needs and technical capabilities of ancient society. Therefore, in order to better understand their influence on the development of concrete, it is necessary to briefly get acquainted with the social structure of Ancient Rome, its politics, including construction and economics.

The growth and development of Ancient Rome was not only rapid, but also unparalleled. Born in the form of a small military settlement on the Palatine (One of the 7 hills on which Rome arose) in the middle of the VIII century. BC e., he gradually turned into the political and cultural center of the entire ancient world. Its small originally territory has grown over the centuries into a huge and powerful empire with hundreds of millions of inhabitants.

The borders of Rome expanded - initially at the expense of the territory of Italy, and then neighboring countries... Foreign policy was characterized by continuous wars and was based on the famous divide and conquer principle.

In the 60s of the III century. BC NS. the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage begin. With interruptions, they have been going on for over a hundred years. After the fall of Carthage (146 BC), when the city was burnt and destroyed by the decision of the Roman Senate, Rome became the most powerful power in the entire vast territory from Egypt and Asia Minor to the British Isles. Innumerable riches and tens of thousands of slaves flock to it, whose labor becomes the basis of the state system, the bulwark of its power for many years. Such a policy required the construction of roads, bridges, water pipes and other engineering structures, demanded even more gold and slaves.

However, along with the slaves, sharp social contradictions came to Rome, which often exploded in uprisings against the oppressors. When they grew to such an extent that they turned into civil wars, the powerful Roman republic reeled and, like an old building, gave its first deep crack.

There was an urgent need for the restructuring of the state system, and it happened, bringing such outstanding commanders as Marius, Sulla, Pompey, Caesar to the crest of the political wave. Antony and Octavian. The latter, as you know, opens with his reign a new stage in the history of the ancient Roman state.

The architecture of Ancient Rome is based on two great civilizations - Greek and Etruscan. The Etruscans had excellent technologies for the construction of temples, houses, tombs. It was they who introduced the arch and vault. But, unlike the Greek ones, the Etruscan temples were built from short-lived materials, so little has survived to this day.

Etruscan Arch in Perugia, Italy

Nevertheless, there are objects, studying which you can get a lot of information about this culture. It is known that the supporting structure of the buildings was made of wood, bricks and terracotta coverings were used.

The Etruscan Arch in Perugia is an intact example of a city gate.

Architecture of Ancient Rome: periods

Real Roman architecture with original features that rework Etruscan and Greek influences dating from the 2nd century BC.

Roman Monarchy architecture

Rome is believed to have been founded in 753 BC. At the beginning of its history, Rome was a monarchy. According to tradition, after the reign of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius ascended the throne, who improved the organization of the city's territory. He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, an experienced Latin warrior who conquered nearby cities. The fourth king was Anco Marzio, who built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber.

Etruscan rulers followed - Tarquinius Priscus ordered to cover the market square with stone, Foro, built numerous temples and ordered to dig the sewer of Cloaca Maxima to discharge dirty water. Servius Tullius surrounded the city with a wall.

The monarchy ended with the reign of Lucius Tarquinius the Proud, who was expelled from the city in 509 BC, and Rome became a republic.

Architecture of the Roman Republic

During a republic that lasted nearly five centuries, Rome was always at war. After the conquest of the Etruscans and other peoples living in the territory of today's Italy, the Roman Republic conquered the territories of Greece and other countries Mediterranean Sea... Construction was actively carried out. Good roads were needed to move the army, and many were built. Road (lat. strata) was formed from several layers (ital. strato) and its surface was covered with stone slabs.

The architecture of the period of the Roman Republic is of great importance practical and functional aspects buildings.

Roman Empire architecture

After the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire in 31 BC, there was a long period of prosperity for art and architecture. Under the emperor Augustus, then under Troyan and Hadrian, the architecture of the Roman Empire reached its splendor and played an important role in the propaganda of power.

There is extensive evidence relating to architecture, where the Romans demonstrate excellent skills in construction techniques, sculpture (portraits, reliefs that complement architecture), painting (frescoes, mosaics).

Christian era architecture

The period of barbarian invasions marks the decline of Roman architecture. A new era is coming - the Christian one.

Main characteristics of Roman architecture

1. In Roman architecture, there is certainly a great continuity with Greek art- symmetry, regularity of forms, the use of architectural orders (Doric, Tuscan, Ionic and Corinthian). In fact, instead of the Doric order, the Romans used the Tuscan order ( tuscanico / toscano), which is very similar to him, the only difference was that the column was smooth, without grooves ( flute).
2. From the Etruscans the Romans adopted arches and vaults, becoming the main experts in their use. When erecting arches and vaults, a temporary wooden structure was used for support - centinatura ( centinatura). From a large number of arches standing one after another, the Romans formed a cylindrical vault ( volta a botte), and the intersection of two cylindrical vaults formed a groin vault ( volta a crociera). The first builders of real domes were also the Romans. One of the most beautiful domed Vaults is the Pantheon.

Materials and technologies

The Romans used bricks to build walls, arches, columns, floors. Marble, as an expensive material, was used much less often. The variety of brick shapes - elongated, square, triangular, pyramidal - helped create strong structures and grips.

Brick production was also expensive and required a lot of manpower for masonry.

This is why they were often replaced with blocks of tuff and travertine, or other materials. To speed up the construction of the walls, the Romans began to use artificial conglomerate or Roman concrete ( calcestruzzo).

The concrete was poured into wooden formwork, compacted with a rammer and, after it had hardened, the formwork was removed. This method of building walls was called opus caementicium.

When the same technology was used to fill the cavities of two bearing walls made of brick or stone, it was called muratura a sacco... Thus, the Romans received thick, strong walls, saving time and resources. Technique was not reflected in aesthetics, as the concrete part was inside.

External wall masonry can be characterized by the main building traditions -

• opus quadratum,
• opus reticulatum,
• opus incertum,
• opus latericium.

Opus quadratum

When working with material such as soft tuff, large parallelepiped stones have been cut and arranged in rows of equal heights (opus quadratum); if hard limestone such as traventino was used, each element took on its own polygonal shape (opus poligonalis).

Оpus reticulatum

In this technique, cement was poured between walls formed by small pyramidal stone blocks, the bases of which formed a regular diamond-shaped grid.

Opus incertum

V opus incertum the stones are irregular in shape and their arrangement seems almost random.

Opus latericium

Fired rectangular bricks (about 45 cm x 30 cm) were laid in alternating order. Since the era of Augustus, its use has increased. Due to the fact that the thickness of the bricks and their color changed over time, it is easy to establish the chronological order of architectural structures.

Opus mixtum

Although brick was usually used uniformly (opus testaceum), there are examples of its use with other stones and rows of other masonry, creating an opus mixtum.

Architecture and urban planning (urban planning)

Here are two different examples -

1. the city of Rome itself, which is unique in its development,
2. and the construction of new cities.

The layout of most ancient Roman cities was rectangular based on the principle of temporary legionary camps - castrum.

Namely, settlements were broken up and built up along two main streets - Cardo (oriented from north to south) and Decumanus (from east to west). The intersection of these streets was set aside for the main square of the city - Foro.

Roads, water pipes, sewerage systems, bridges were built in cities. Various buildings were built:

• residential houses (Domus, Insulae and Villas);
• for recreation (theaters, amphitheaters, circuses and baths);
• intended for the worship of gods (temples);
• for political and administrative activities (Curia and Basilica)
• and festive monuments (triumphal arches and columns).

A short video review of the reconstruction of the architecture of Ancient Rome:

The ancient sights of Rome can be assessed today very ambiguously. An imposing arena in which no form of torture was considered overly cruel. Places of worship, where the gods were often worshiped with the help of ritual sacrifices, which today shock us. Palaces of amusement, in which sexual corruption was not only accepted, but even encouraged. The state of Ancient Rome attracts the interest of many researchers and history buffs.

Who were the people who created such grandiose structures in Rome? What made them build ever greater monuments and at what cost was it? What were the laws The answers to these questions are very interesting, although we still do not know everything. The ancient landmarks of Rome are truly impressive. We will present you some of them.

Coliseum

Crowds of people were attracted to the arena by a bloody performance. Sometimes the Roman Colosseum was attended by up to 50 thousand people. They all longed to contemplate scenes of indescribable horror. Nobles, priests, senators, emperors, slaves, common people had fun seeing the bloody scenes.

Gladiators fought each other wearing heavy armor. They often beat an opponent to death. In the arena, wild hungry animals were set against each other, and they were released to fight with humans. The goal pursued by the participants in these confrontations was to tear each other to shreds. Some features of Ancient Rome are incomprehensible to us today.

Filling the arena with water

Various types of special effects were used on the stage. These included filling the arena with water to simulate sea battles. How did the ancient Romans manage to fill the Colosseum with water?

Everything is actually quite simple: a system of reservoirs was filled from the aqueducts. They were right above the arena, on the slope. These ingenious ancient Romans pumped water down from aqueducts and then through reservoirs to the center of the Colosseum. The more difficult question is, how did they manage to pump out the water later?

The sewerage system is believed to have been built by the ancient Romans. However, this question has yet to be answered by researchers, since very little excavations have been carried out in the Colosseum until today. The ancient sights of Rome are still not well understood.

Bloody competitions

Major Roman myths were part of the play. And the worse they were, the better. Christians and criminals were often cast in the most dangerous roles.

In the Roman Colosseum, bloody competition has prevailed since its opening in 72 AD. The opening ceremony was hosted by the Emperor Titus. It lasted 100 days. An unprecedented massacre took place on the opening day: about 5 thousand animals were killed.

Colosseum - Gift of Vespasian

The Colosseum is a gift to the Romans from the predecessor and father of Titus. Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty, began to rule in AD 69. This time was a critical moment in the history of Rome. Hundreds of years had passed since the empire was founded by Augustus, and now its future was very vague.

Chaos reigned when the four emperors changed in one year. After that, Vespasian, who ruled Syria, seized power.

A dexterous diplomat and hero, he easily won the support of the Senate and was declared emperor. After that, after suppressing the uprising on the Rhine and the Jewish revolt in Jerusalem, he focused on domestic problems.

Vespasian during his ten-year reign saved the treasury from the deficit left by his predecessor Nero. He also began to build a set. The Colosseum became the biggest enterprise. It was conceived as a symbol of Vespasian's success and power.

Colosseum construction

It took over 10 years to complete the construction. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater. Many laborers and slaves were used to build it. Some of the builders were prisoners who were captured by Vespasian, who won the Jerusalem campaign.

Until now, the name of the architect who created the Colosseum is unknown. One of the most surprising features of this attraction is its highly sophisticated crowd control system. The amphitheater originally had 80 entrances. They all led to certain sectors. The places were divided into tiers.

The fate of the colosseum

The last games known from written sources took place in the 6th century AD. They completed this brutal competition, which amused the once bloodthirsty Romans. After that, the Colosseum was not used for a long time. It was partially destroyed, like many other ancient sights of Rome. A terrible earthquake happened in the 9th century, as a result, most of it was destroyed.

Later, the Colosseum was used as a quarry. The rich marble cladding was stripped off, which began to be used in the construction of churches and palaces. Some of the four levels that originally existed are still intact. To this day, the Colosseum is a testament to both the cruelty of the ancient Romans and the skill of the people who built the sights of Ancient Rome. It attracts many tourists to Italy.

Pantheon

The temples of ancient Rome are impressive. The most famous of them is the Pantheon. In the 1930s, Benito Mussolini, the Italian dictator, conceived an original propaganda campaign. In particular, he drew parallels between the glory of the new regime and the greatness that the empire of Ancient Rome possessed. This led to a multitude of archaeological research and excavations throughout the state. Due to the flood of the Tiber, sediments of earth appeared on many monuments, which completely covered them. due to its proximity to the river, it was badly damaged. This building was built from about 27 to 23 BC.

Architectural plan discovered by workers

The workers, having gone 6-7 meters into the ground, discovered the pavement, which was made of massive blocks. However, soon the Second began. World War, and for some time this discovery was forgotten. Only 20 years later, in 1964, Roman specialists began to study this place again. A full-sized architectural plan was carved into the pavement. Obviously, the courtyard served as a workshop for the construction site. The whole question is for which one.

None of the existing monuments corresponded to the project. One of the specialists solved the riddle in 1992. It seems that these plans were made for the Pantheon. Many parts of the structure coincided exactly, but not all.

First Pantheon

The Pantheon is a famous temple that was built in honor of the emperor, as well as for the worship of the gods of Rome. What we see now is not the first Pantheon. The temple was originally conceived by Marcus Agrippa, a domineering Roman general. Construction began in 27 BC, and was completed two years later. However, in 64 A.D. a great fire destroyed the Pantheon.

Rebuilding the Pantheon

Thereafter, in 118 CE, rebuilding began, led by He was an amateur architect who participated in many of the building projects of Rome.

The Pantheon was built after 10 years of work. Adrian dedicated the building to its first builder. That is why the name of Marcus Agrippa is visible on the facade.

The Pantheon has a huge rotunda made of brick and stone, as well as a vault that forms a dome. The Pantheon is a square structure, 43 meters high and wide. Its walls are 7.5 meters thick, and each of the bronze doors weighs 20 tons.

Where now there are paintings on biblical motives, there used to be marble statues of the gods of Rome.

Baths of Caracalla

The sights of Ancient Rome also include the Baths of Caracalla. These antique baths are similar to modern wellness centers. They are the largest and most richly decorated of all public baths built in ancient Rome. Their construction was started by Septimius Severus in 206 A.D. And the construction was completed in 216. Opened by the son of Septimius.

Term decorations, their use

These buildings of Ancient Rome were really richly decorated: walls lined with marble, mosaic floors, stucco ceilings.

The baths occupied a large and beautifully decorated area, which was used as a gymnasium. Here men went in for sports: throwing a javelin, disc, boxing. The entrance to the baths was free even for slaves. Initially, women and men washed together, but at the beginning of the 2nd century Adrian forbade it.

The invasion is ready, the destruction of the terms

These buildings of Ancient Rome continued to be used until 535 AD. At this time, the Goths invaded and broke the aqueduct. The same fate befell the baths of Caracalla, like many other monuments of Ancient Rome. They were partially destroyed. The large sums required for their repair disappeared when the empire collapsed, the surrounding world, familiar to the inhabitants, disappeared. Ancient Rome was a thing of the past.

In the Middle Ages, marble and bronze were stripped from the walls, and the beautiful sculptures that adorned the baths ended up in the collections of the popes and the aristocracy.

Forum

Not much has survived from the majestic Roman Forum. It was the center of Rome's life. The Forum appeared in the 4th century BC. In its place today, only fragments of some monuments, many overturned stones and a couple of vaults have survived. We note right away that the imperial forums adjoin the Roman forum, which are not part of the Roman one, although they are similar to it both in purpose and in name.

Reconstruction of the forum by August

The construction of the forum was accidental. There was no systematic plan. Therefore, the forum lacked harmony. During the time of Augustus, it was completely renovated. This emperor removed most of the structures, while paving and expanding the territory. Now, how the forum looked during the period of the republic is a mystery. Many of the buildings were wooden, so they were demolished or destroyed. August used only stone and cement for construction.

Vestals

Temples of Ancient Rome on the forum include a temple dedicated to It was for the Roman people one of the most important and ancient goddesses. They tied it to the heart, as well as to fire. It was believed that this fire represented the spiritual strength of the entire country. Priestesses served her, who made sure that the fire did not go out. They always had to remain virgins, otherwise they would be executed. The Vestals lived near the temple. They were chosen from aristocratic families aged 6 to 10 years. For 30 years they had to serve at the temple. After leaving the service, these women were thus at least 36 years old. To many, they seemed too old to marry. Most of the vestals remained priestesses for the rest of their lives.

It far surpassed the models created by the Greeks in grandeur, functionalism and scale. In part, the invention of good cement played an important role. But no less important was the pride of the emperors, who over the centuries tried to surpass their predecessors, erecting ever more majestic, grandiose and richly decorated monuments.

The chapter "Building materials, building equipment, structures" of the subsection "Architecture of the Roman Republic" of the section "Architecture of Ancient Rome" from the book "General history of architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome) "edited by B.P. Mikhailova.

Stone was the main building material in a mountainous country, rich in various varieties and volcanic rocks. The most convenient for processing were varieties of soft tuff - gray, yellowish or brownish. Hard limestone, travertine, was highly valued, and it was used extremely economically during almost the entire period of the republic. It was used by architects only in places of the greatest load of the building in the corner parts and in those details where porous tuff, which was easily weathered, was inappropriate. Outside, stone buildings were often covered with a light layer of knocking. Mostly religious and public buildings and engineering structures were erected from stone. The dwellings were built from raw bricks. From the end of the II century. fired bricks of various shapes came into use. Column trunks were laid out of shaped round or pentagonal bricks (Fig. 1). By the end of the 1st century. BC. in the walls of the baths, hollow brick blocks were used to construct a heating system in which hot air circulated (Fig. 2).

At the end of the republican period, white marble, both local and imported from Greece, began to be used to decorate temples, public buildings and wealthy dwellings.

In the art of building and stone processing techniques, the Etruscans had a well-known influence on the Romans. Remains of the oldest Roman buildings are made of large stones of irregular shape. In addition to polygonal masonry, quadra masonry was also developed early. For the period of the V-III centuries. BC NS. The Romans improved the construction technique by developing the so-called "normal" masonry of blocks in the form of a parallelepiped of different sizes (on average 60X60X120 cm). Several methods of this masonry were used: from one spoonful of rows of blocks; from spoons with sparse pokes; from alternating rows of spoons and pokes, as well as observing rhythmic alternation in each row of spoons and spoons (Fig. 3).

By the III century. BC. Under the influence of the Greeks, the processing of the outer side of the blocks improved and various methods of rustication were developed. Simple cranes were used to lift and move heavy stone blocks at construction sites (Fig. 4).

In addition to the post-and-beam system, a false arch and a false vault were used in the structures. By the end of the III century. BC. the emergence of Roman concrete, which opened up tremendous opportunities in construction, belongs to.

The development of Roman concrete began with the use of lime mortar in rubble masonry. A similar construction technique was widespread in Hellenistic times. The difference between Roman concrete and ordinary lime mortars is that instead of sand, pozzolans were used in it - volcanic sands, named after the place of extraction (the city of Pozzuoli - ancient Puteoli). The use of pozzolanas instead of sand in mortar was due to the lack of good sands in this part of Italy. Pozzolanas have proven to be the best astringent in mortar because they give it water resistance, strength and quick setting. Initially, concrete was only used to fill the space between the hewn stone walls. The dimensions of the stones laid in concrete gradually decreased, the mixture became more and more homogeneous and the concrete thus turned into an independent construction material, although the stone cladding of the outer surfaces was preserved. The original surface of the wall consisted of small irregularly shaped stones connected to the core of the wall and to each other with concrete mortar. This is the so-called wrong facing - incert (opus incertum). Gradually there appears (from the 90s of the 1st century BC) a tendency to give stones an ever more regular shape and, finally, from the middle of the 1st century BC. BC. comes into use reticulat - mesh masonry (opus reticulatum), in which the outer surface concrete wall revetted with small, carefully arranged pyramidal stones. Their flat bases go out and form a mesh pattern, and their pointed ends are immersed in the concrete core of the wall (Fig. 5). The corners of the walls and lintels of the openings were formed by masonry from large blocks. Samples of early concrete technology have come down to us in small numbers. This is due to the fact that initially concrete was used mainly not in monumental buildings, but in dwellings and small structures, for which a quickly obtained and inexpensive wall material was needed. The concrete technique also had the advantage that it required a much smaller number of skilled construction workers and allowed the widespread use of slave labor.

In parallel, there was the development of arched-vaulted structures, which were used in the architecture of the ancient East, sometimes found in Greece (Priene, Pergamum, etc.). The question of whether the arched-vaulted structures were brought into the architecture of Rome from outside or independently invented by Roman architects cannot be considered finally solved at the present time.

The first appearance of the wedge arch in Rome dates back to the 4th century. BC. In the III-II centuries. BC. the number of arched-vaulted structures is increasing, especially since the end of the II century. BC.

The combination of concrete technology and arched-vaulted structures, which gave unprecedented opportunities, had a huge impact on the development of Roman architecture. Only with the help of such construction techniques it was possible to create such outstanding architectural structures as the Roman aqueducts, the Colosseum and the Pantheon.

The first monumental structure that has come down to us in this new form of technology is the portico of the Emilia, which was a huge grain warehouse in Emporia (the port of Rome downstream of the Tiber). Major trading operations were carried out here. Originally Emporium was a simple unloading area, and the portico of Emiliev was a temporary structure. In 174 BC. the building of the portico was built (Fig. 6). It was a large rectangular building stretched along the embankment (487X60 m), divided inside into 50 short transverse naves by 49 rows of pillars. The building rose in steps from the banks of the Tiber, and each nave was covered with a stepped cylindrical vault with a span of 8.3 m. On the hewn tuff façade, each nave had a corresponding section, separated from the neighboring ones by pilasters. Each nave is expressed on the façade: at the bottom with a large arched span, at the top with two smaller windows, also with a semicircular end. The walls of the building are made of gray concrete very good quality, their surface is lined with incert; the corners of the building and wedge-shaped arches above the door and window openings are made of rectangular blocks of the same material. The Emiliev portico was an outstanding monument of the early Roman art of building.

Here, for the first time in a building of such a grandiose scale, the fusion of the vaulted-arch principle of structures with concrete technology was achieved. Such a developed construction probably indicates a long preceding evolution.

The purpose of the building was in keeping with the simplicity of its forms. Repetition of one standard element on the facade 50 times gave the building a scale and emphasized the utility of its purpose.

Such huge structures were carried out in an extremely short time. The grandiose Colosseum was built in five years, and the aqueducts of 100 kilometers or more, together with substructures and bridges “in the places where they crossed river valleys, the Romans managed to build in two or three years (the term of office of aedil, the head of construction, elected by the Senate). Construction was usually tendered and carried out by contractors who were interested in the best organization of the whole, skillfully combining the labor of a huge mass of unskilled slaves and a small number of experienced building architects. Therefore, when designing, the typification of the main structural elements, the multiplicity of their sizes by foot and modularity were widely used, which made it possible to divide the work into identical simple operations. The organization of labor on Roman construction sites was very high.

FEDERAL RAILWAY AGENCY

Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY OF WAYS OF COMMUNICATION"

COURSE WORK

TOPIC: "Famous architectural monuments of Ancient Rome"

Completed by: Nepomniachtchi Valeria Alexandrovna

Checked by: Bavina L.G.

Moscow 2012

INTRODUCTION

1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period VIII-VI centuries. BC

2 Temple of Saturn

3 Roman Forum

CHAPTER 2. THE EPOCH OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V? I centuries BC)

2 Features of construction

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

The history of the culture of Ancient Rome is the history of the formation, development and decline of a huge state that stretched along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and included Europe in its sphere of influence, North Africa and the Near East.

One of the most important art forms in ancient Rome was architecture. Vitruvius is probably the most important ancient Roman architect. It was he who formulated the three basic principles of ancient Roman architecture: benefit, strength, beauty.

In the Roman art of the heyday, the leading role was played by architecture, the monuments of which, even now, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The Romans laid the foundation for a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, embodying the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people. In the entire ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction.

The history of architecture of Ancient Rome is divided into three stages. The first is the early or tsarist era, which began in the 8th or 6th centuries. BC. The second stage is the era of the republic, which began at the end of the 6th century. BC, when the Etruscan kings were expelled from Rome, and lasted until the middle of the 1st century. BC. The third stage - the imperial one - began with the reign of Octavian Augustus, who passed to autocracy, and lasted until the 5th century. AD

The purpose of this work is to study the originality of the architecture of Ancient Rome

Research objective: to consider the features of the architecture of Ancient Rome and its characteristic features.

CHAPTER 1. EARLY OR ROYAL ROME (VIII-VI centuries BC)

1 Characteristics of the Architecture of the period VIII-VI centuries. BC

The center of a future great power? city ​​of Rome? originated in Lazia, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. The early history of Rome is shrouded in legends and a fog of legends. There are several versions of its origin, but the most common is the legend of Romulus and Remus, they were the sons of the god of war Mars and the vestal Rhea Silvia, daughter of the king of the city of Alba Longa. The cunning brother of the king, wanting to take possession of the throne, imprisoned him, and put the twins in a basket and threw them into the Tiber. However, the basket with the twins was nailed to the Capitol, a sacred hill where a she-wolf nursed the babies with her milk. When the boys grew up, they returned the throne to their grandfather, and they themselves decided to found a new city. They erected its main temple on the Capitol Hill. Outlining the boundaries of the city, the brothers quarreled, and Romulus killed Remus, becoming the sole ruler of the city and giving him his name. It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. NS.

The development of Rome took place under the Etruscan influence. Many Etruscan achievements were borrowed, for example, in the field of construction, various crafts. Rome borrowed writing, Roman numerals, methods of interpretation and fortune-telling, and much more.

According to legend, in Rome in the VIII-VI centuries. ruled by 7 kings: Romulus, Numa Pomp Tullus Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Tarcus the Ancient, Servius Tullius, Tarquim the Proud. Of particular importance in the history of early Rome and its culture is the reign of the last three Roman kings, who, as scientists believe, came from the Etruscans, but unlike the rest of the kings, were real historical figures.

The art of the Etruscans, who lived in the first millennium BC. NS. end of VIII - I centuries BC NS. on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, left a significant mark in the history of world culture and strongly influenced the ancient Roman artistic activity. Having conquered the Etruscans, the Romans embraced their achievements and in their architecture, plasticity and painting continued what the Etruscans had begun.

Under the Etruscan dynasty, Rome began to transform. Work was carried out to drain the once swampy Forum, and shopping arcades and porticos were built there. On the Capitol Hill, a temple of Jupiter with a pediment decorated with a quadriga was erected by craftsmen from Etruria. Rome has turned into a large populous city with powerful fortified walls, beautiful temples and houses on stone foundations. Under the last king? Tarquinia Gordom, was the main underground sewer built in Rome? The great cesspool that serves " eternal city"And to this day.

Etruscan art works were created mainly in the area bounded by the Arno River in the north and the Tiber in the south, but there were also significant art workshops in the Etruscan cities north of these borders Marzabotto, Spina and to the south Preneste, Velletri, Satrik.

The Etruscans are known to modern man, perhaps, more for their art than for any other forms of activity, since much in their history, religion, culture, including not yet fully understood writing, remains mysterious.

The culture of the Etruscans testifies to their significant artistic talent. Their art is original, although traces of Asia Minor, later Greek influences can be distinguished in it. He is characterized by a striving for realism, so noticeable in the paintings of the tombs of the Etruscan nobility. Etruscan artists do not care about conveying details, but pay all attention to the most essential features of the depicted. If the Roman portrait reached an unprecedented artistic perfection, then this was due to the assimilation of the Etruscan heritage by the Roman masters. The so-called false dome, gradually converging inside rows of stone beams or bricks, was used in architecture already in the Minoan and Mycenaean periods, but only the Etruscans began to erect vaults from wedge-shaped beams, thus creating a dome in the proper sense of the word. The largest number of surviving monuments of Etruscan art belongs to the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC NS. At this time, Etruria experienced a strong influence Greek culture, and during the same period, Etruscan art was flourishing.

Important place in Etruscan art, sculpture was occupied, the flowering of which dates back to the 6th century. BC NS. The most famous Etruscan sculptor was the master Vulka who worked in Vey; he owns a monumental terracotta statue of Apollo of Vey.

One of these works of the VI century. BC NS. is the famous statue of the Capitoline wolf. The she-wolf is depicted nursing Romulus and Remus. In this sculpture, the viewer is amazed not only by observation in the reproduction of nature. No wonder the statue of the Capitoline she-wolf in subsequent eras was perceived as a vivid symbol of the harsh and cruel Rome.

Etruria's artisans were famous for their works of gold, bronze and clay. Etruscan potters used a special technique of the so-called buckeronero - black earth: the clay was smoked, thus acquiring a black color.

After molding and firing, the product was polished by friction. This technique was prompted by the desire to make earthen vessels look like more expensive metal vessels. Their walls were usually decorated with relief images, and sometimes a rooster or other figures were placed on the lids.

The main symbol of the power of Rome is the Forum. Even before the Etruscan invasion, the area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills became a kind of center of culture and civilization, which, both geographically and spiritually, united the Latin tribes who lived at the foot of the seven hills.

Having restored the Etruscan temple of Castor and Pollux in accordance with the canons of Hellenistic architecture, the republicans built the Basilica Aemilia and Tabularia, where the tribunal and the state archives, respectively, deployed their activities, paving the entire space of the Forum with slabs of travertine. The restructuring of the Roman Forum, begun by Julius Caesar and continued by Augustus, contributed to the ordering of a rather chaotic ensemble.

In accordance with the geometric layout of city squares surrounded by columns, adopted in the Hellenistic cities, new plan development proceeded from the axial principle and rationalized the hitherto free drawing of the ensemble of the republican forum. Temples and basilicas, built in accordance with the new design, glorified the power of Rome throughout the world.

2 Temple of Saturn

The most ancient part Roman Forum - Temple of Saturn. The Temple of Saturn was preceded by a very ancient altar, which legend relates to a mythical city founded by Saturn himself on the Capitol. The possibility of the existence of a settlement on the hill since prehistoric times and the antiquity of the religious cult itself confirm to some extent this legend. The construction of the Temple of Saturn was a tribute to the god Saturn, whom the Romans identified with the Greek god Kronos and revered for his ability to save the city from disasters.

The construction of the temple may have been started already in the tsarist period. Its opening was carried out only in the first years of the Republic, possibly in 498 BC. NS.

The building was completely rebuilt starting in 42 BC. BC, by Munatius Plank, and rebuilt after a fire that broke out during the reign of Karin 283 AD. NS. Probably, it is to this restoration that the surviving part belongs - eight columns, six columns of gray granite on the facade and two of red on the sides, and the main pediment was largely built of restored material. The inscription, which is still visible on the frieze, reminds that this restoration was carried out due to the fire Senatus populusque romanus incendio consumptum restituit - the Senate and the people of Rome were rebuilt by fire.

It was the only temple in Rome where believers could enter with their heads open, and the first temple in which wax candles were burned. Here was kept a statue of the god Saturn, which was worn during processions on the occasion of triumphal celebrations.

3 Roman Forum

One of the main attractions of Rome. Since ancient times, the Roman Forum has been the place where people came to learn political news, exchange impressions, and conclude a successful trade deal.

The Roman Forum arose during the time of the first Roman kings, around the 7th century BC, when the space between the hills of the Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal began to gather locals.

The Forum, located in a valley between three hills - the Palatine, the Capitol and the Esquiline, in ancient times was a desert swampy area that was drained during the reign of King Tarquinius the Ancient thanks to large-scale work on the construction of sewers and the laying of a large stone cesspool connected to the drainage system. After the area was drained, the construction of the Forum began, one part of which was intended for shops, the other for public ceremonies, religious holidays, elections in the chancellery and magistrates, for oratorical stands and sentencing of convicts.

In the center of the Forum stands a tall memorial column, the Phocas Column, which is a Corinthian column erected in front of the Rostra at the Roman Forum and in 608 dedicated to the Byzantine emperor Phocas.

The column, 13.6 m high, was erected on a white marble quadrangular pedestal, originally used in the monument in honor of Diocletian. At the top of the column there used to be a statue of the emperor made of gilded bronze - until in 610 Phoca was overthrown, after which the slow desolation of this place began.

CHAPTER 2. THE EPOCH OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V? I centuries BC)

1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period V? I centuries. BC

Only a few architectural monuments have survived from the republican period of the history of Ancient Rome. In construction, the Romans used mainly four architectural orders: Tuscan, borrowed from the Etruscans, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Roman temples resemble Greek architecture in their rectangular shape and use of porticoes, but, unlike the Greek ones, they were grander and, as a rule, were erected on high podiums. In the V? IV centuries. BC. in Roman construction, mainly soft volcanic tuff was used. Fired brick and marble were widely used later in the republican period. In the II century. BC. Roman builders invented concrete, which caused the widespread distribution of arched-vaulted structures, which transformed all ancient architecture.

In addition to the peripter, the type of rotunda, that is, a round temple, was also used in Roman temple architecture. Was this one of the oldest Roman temples? the temple of Vesta or Hercules, located at the Forum.

A variety of arches and arched structures were a characteristic feature of Roman architecture. But the Romans did not give up on the columns either? they were used to decorate public buildings, for example, the huge theater of Pompey, the first stone theater in Rome in the 1st century. BC. Freestanding columns erected, for example, in honor of military victories were very popular in Roman architecture.

Are arcades a very characteristic type of Roman structure? a series of arches resting on pillars or columns.

Were arcades used in the construction of open galleries along the wall of a building, such as a theater, as well as in aqueducts? multi-tiered stone bridges, inside of which were hidden lead and clay pipes supplying water to the city. A specifically Roman type of construction was the triumphal arch, which was most widespread in the era of the Empire as a monument to military and imperial glory.

In the middle of the 1st century. BC. the first majestic marble buildings appeared in Rome. Julius Caesar ordered to build in Rome new Forum worthy of the capital of a great power. Was Caesar's Basilica built there? a rectangular building intended for court hearings, trade operations and popular gatherings, Christian churches were built in the Middle Ages after the type of the Roman basilica. A temple was also erected at the Forum in honor of Venus, the patroness of the Julian clan.

The main streets and squares of the city of Rome later in the Republican period were adorned with magnificent marble statues, mostly copies of Greek masters. Thanks to this, the works of famous Greek sculptors have come down to us: Miron, Polycletus, Praxiteles, Lysippos.

The central commercial and public square of the city - the Roman Forum, where popular meetings, fairs, and the court were held, are being improved. It is expanding, new public buildings and temples are being built around it, porticos are paved with tiles. It was the center of the political life of the capital of the world, decorated over the centuries with assembly basilicas, temples and memorials.

By the II century. BC NS. developed building on a plain bounded by three hills (Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal). Subsequently, five more forums joined the Roman Forum: Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan. Now is a field of ruins huge complex Roman forums of the times of the republic and the early empire.

New types of public buildings appear. The very dense development of the urban area, overcrowding and cramped conditions could not but cause the need for special green areas - parks located on the outskirts of the city. This is how the luxurious gardens of Sallust and Lucullus appeared. The city was divided into quarters, quarters were grouped into districts. Not only Rome, but also small cities, for example, Pompeii, are transformed into the 1st century. BC. to well-maintained, cultural centers with various buildings, beautiful squares, cobbled streets, a stone theater and an amphitheater, a circus, numerous shops and taverns.

As a result of the Roman conquests, various kinds of wealth flowed to Rome and the Italian cities. This sparked the rise of Roman architecture. The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of ​​strength, power and greatness that suppress a person. From here was born the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their structures, which amaze the imagination with their size. Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for a lush decoration of buildings, rich decorative decoration, a lot of decorations, a greater interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation of mainly not temple complexes, but buildings and structures for practical needs - bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths ...

2 Features of construction

The most important public building in ancient Rome was the basilica, where the court sat and trade deals were concluded. The rectangular volumes of the basilicas of the republican period at the forum in Pompeii and the imperial at the Graiana forum in Rome consisted of five aisles separated by columns: a very wide central one and four narrower ones that carried galleries of the second tier. The tribunal, where the court was held, had the shape of a huge semicircle, the diameter of which occupied one of the narrow sides and was separated from the rest of the basilica by a portico. The entrance was a passageway, probably, it did not have an overlap, remaining under open air... The basilicas were always crowded and lively: the court sat, speakers spoke, trade deals were concluded. The atmosphere that prevailed there is evidenced, for example, by such an inscription preserved on the wall of the Pompeian basilica.

Circuses were built on the model that was the grandiose Roman circus Massimo, built during the era of the republic. The stone stands, arranged in tiers, had the shape of an ellipse. The entrance was at its curvature and was marked by massive triumphal arches. The center of the field along its length was occupied by a high podium, decorated with statues, obelisks and columns. The stone pillars at the ends - metas - served as a guide for the drivers.

The amphitheaters were circular in plan. Massive semicircular arches of cut stone, the so-called Roman cells, arranged in two or three tiers, surrounded the open arena.

Stone seats rose from the arena in tiers. An exceptional place among such structures was occupied by the four-storey Flavian amphitheater in Rome (Colosseum), the construction of which began in 75 AD. NS. under the Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty. The performance in the Colosseum could be watched simultaneously by 50 thousand spectators. Through the open arcade of the first floor, they evenly penetrated inside and along 60 staircases fell into their places. The seats in the first, lower tier were intended for the privileged class - senators, priests, vestals and judges; here was the emperor's tribune; in the second - for citizens; in the third - for the plebs; the fourth floor was reserved for standing places for slaves. The dungeon under the arena housed chambers for gladiators, cages for animals, rooms where the corpses of the dead were carried. For the battle of gladiators, the arena was covered with sand; for a naval battle, it was filled with water using an aqueduct sleeve that approached the building. Inside the building was faced with marble, outside - with limestone tuff and decorated with columns - one at a time on the plane of the wall between the arched openings. On the ground floor, these are the columns of the Tuska order, squat and massive. The second floor is surrounded by graceful, slender columns of the Ionic order, the third - even higher Corinthian ones, the fourth - the Corinthian pilasters. This arrangement of columns provides a visual effect in which a building, massive from below, appears less heavy and taller. The arches were once filled with majestic marble statues of Roman gods and senators. The pompous look was completed by a silk awning, which was stretched over the arena on hot or rainy days.

3 Famous monuments of the republican period

Ancient roman architecture monument road

From most of the republican temples, and there were several dozen of them in Rome, not even the ruins have survived. The most famous are the grandiose structures, the ancient defensive walls of Rome, which arose in the VIII century. BC. on three hills: Capitol, Palatine and Quiripale, laid out of stone early - VI century. BC. and the so-called Servian wall - 378-352. BC.

Roman roads were important strategic importance, they united different parts of the country. The Appian Way of the 6th-3rd centuries leading to Rome. BC. for the movement of cohorts and messengers was the first of the network of roads that later covered all of Italy. Near the valley of Aricci, a road paved with a thick layer of concrete, rubble, lava and tuff slabs, because of the terrain, ran along a massive wall 197 m long, 11 m high, dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.

Gradually in the following centuries Rome becomes the richest city in the world with water. Powerful bridges and aqueducts Appius Claudius aqueduct, 311 BC, Marcius aqueduct, 144 BC, running tens of kilometers, took a prominent place in the architecture of the city, in the form of its picturesque surroundings, being an integral part of landscape of the Roman Campagna.

The most ancient vaulted structures include the sewer channel of the Maximus cesspool in Rome, which has survived to this day. Public life took place in the market square. For the Romans, this was a forum. All the main city events took place here: meetings, councils, important decisions were announced here, children were taught, traded, it served as an arena for political activity, popular gatherings, military triumphs.

The architectural ensemble included temples, basilicas, merchants' shops, markets. The squares were decorated with statues of famous citizens, politicians and were surrounded by columns and porticoes.

The oldest forum in Rome is the Republican Forum Romanum VI century BC. to which all roads converged. Now only the foundations of the buildings are left of the Forum Romanum; its initial appearance is a reconstruction.

In the last centuries of the republic, the forum acquired a complete architectural appearance. On one side it was adjoined by the imposing building of the state archive - Tabularius, which stood on vaulted underground floors. It was a completely new type of public building, and the fact that it first appeared among the Romans speaks of their exceptional respect for history.

Outside, Tabularia was decorated with a Greek order, but inside it consisted of a system of vaulted rooms. A long Tabularia staircase of 67 steps led from the forum to the Capitol. Such corridors and staircases are often found in republican buildings. They create the impression of the vastness of the space covered by the architecture. But at the same time, all forms are clearly visible in their perspective reduction: the smallest arch or step is clearly visible, the most distant goal is achievable.

Temples rose on the square, among them the temple of Vesta, the virgin goddess, in which an inextinguishable fire burned, symbolizing the life of the Roman people. Here, columns rose, to which rostras were attached - the prows of defeated enemy ships, hence the name - rostral column, and there was a "sacred road" along which there were taberns - shops of jewelers and goldsmiths. During the era of the republic, especially in the V-II centuries. BC, the temple is the main type of public building. It developed gradually as a result of the interbreeding of the prevailing local Italic-Etruscan traditions with the Greek ones, adapted to local conditions. Round and quadrangular pseudo-peripters were built with an entrance only from the main facade. The round temple - monopter consisted of a cylindrical base surrounded by a colonnade. The entrance was, according to Etruscan custom, from one, end, side.

Round temple of Sibyl or Vesta in Tivoli, 1st century. BC, near Rome, surrounded by Corinthian columns. The frieze is decorated with reliefs depicting the traditional Roman motif - bull skulls, "bucrania", from which heavy garlands hang. It was a symbol of sacrifice and memory. The order in such temples was distinguished by the rigidity of the drawing and dryness: the columns lost their plasticity inherent in them in Greece.

The Greek round peripter usually had a stepped base and was designed for all-round viewing. The Temple of Sibylla in Tivoli, like the Etruscan temples, combines a frontal strictly symmetrical longitudinal axial composition and a round one. The axis of the temple is emphasized by the main entrance with steps, door and windows located in front of it. The massive, vaulted base of the temple in Tivoli creates a transition from a stone cliff, which it painfully completes, to an elegant round Corinthian rotunda with a light frieze of garlands. Raised on a high base, harmonious in proportion, with a slender and austere colonnade filled with light, the temple dominates the landscape. Its calm, harmonious forms contrast with the turbulent cascade of the waterfall.

Rectangular Roman temples also differed from Greek order ones, as the well-preserved Temple of Fortuna Virilis at the Forum Bull in Rome (1st century BC) shows - a unique example of an early completed Roman temple of the pseudoperipter type with a closed frontal axial composition. The Greek peripter in it is dismembered into a deep front portico open on all sides and a cella, surrounded by semi-columns that merge with the wall. Accentuating the main façade with a portico with free-standing columns and front staircase entrance, the architect combined it with a closed cell of the Ionic order. It also has an entrance on only one side, the Ionic columns are crowned with capitals of a modest design. The pediment is completely "non-Greek", without sculptures inside its tympanum and with rich, strictly drawn profiles.

Roman bridges of the 1st century are magnificent. BC. So, the Mulvia bridge, in addition to its practical advantages (it stood for more than two thousand years, is distinguished by the expressiveness of the image. The bridge visually, as it were, rests on the water with semicircles of arches, the supports between which are cut by high and narrow openings to lighten the weight. The bridge seems to walk from coast to coast in continuous arches: it is dynamic and at the same time stable.

The originality of Roman architecture was reflected in the creation of a new type of private dwelling house of wealthy landowners, merchants, and artisans. Roman mansions are mostly one-story houses, in which the comfort of family life was combined with adaptability to business life.

Part of the appearance of the Roman city can be seen in the example of Pompeii, an Italian city that died in 79 AD. as a result of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

The city buried under ash was accidentally discovered during the construction of a water supply system in the 17th century. From 1748 to the present day, excavations have continued. The city had a regular layout. Straight streets were framed by the facades of houses, at the bottom of which there were tabern shops. The vast forum was surrounded by a beautiful two-story colonnade. There were the sanctuary of Isis, the temple of Apollo, the temple of Jupiter, a large amphitheater, built, like the Greeks, in a natural depression. Designed for twenty thousand spectators, it significantly exceeded the needs of the city's residents and was also intended for visitors. There were two theaters in the city.

Remarkable Pompeian houses - "domus". These were rectangular structures that stretched along the courtyard, and out onto the street with blank end walls. The main room was an atrium from lat. atrium - "smoked", "black", i.e. a room blackened with soot that served a sacred function. At its founding, Rome had in the very center a cult pit - "mundus", where all the inhabitants threw fruits and a handful of earth from their old homeland. It opened only once a year - on the day of the Underground Goddess or did not open at all. Each house repeated this model: in the atrium there was often a hole in the center of the roof - a compluvium. Under it was a pool for collecting water, akin to the mundus - impluvium.

In general, the atrium served as a "pillar of the world", connecting every Roman house with heaven and the underworld. It is no coincidence that all the most important things were in the atrium: a heavy chest with family values, an altar-type table and a cabinet for storing wax masks of ancestors and images of good patron spirits - lares and penates.

CHAPTER 3. THE EPOCH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (I century BC? V century AD)

1 Characteristics of the architecture of the 1st century BC. ? V century AD

The imperial period came at the end of the 1st century. BC e., when the Roman state from an aristocratic republic turned into the Roman Empire. The development of architecture during the imperial period can be divided into three stages.

The architecture of the first stage of the imperial period (1st century BC - 1st century AD), which is characterized by the strengthening of the imperial power, was distinguished by the simplicity of compositional solutions. The works of Greek classical architecture served as a model for her. Among the main monuments is the Forum of Augustus with the temple of Mars Ultor (the Avenger). The Corinthian columns of the temple are placed closely, with an intercolumnium (distance between the columns) of 1.5 column diameters. A constructive system based on the combination of fired bricks with the so-called Roman lime concrete in the walls and ceilings is becoming widespread. Brick was introduced in the form of arches or layers, alternating with concrete layers, which made it possible to erect vaults and domes of a large span. The outside of the building was faced with travertine or marble, inside the walls were plastered and painted.

The second stage of the imperial period (II century AD) is called the golden age of the Roman Empire. During this period, the architect Apollodorus of Damascus built the largest architectural ensemble of Ancient Rome - the Forum of the Roman Emperor Trajan, which was distinguished not only by its size and variety of compositional solutions, but also by the richness of decoration. The five-nave basilica of Ulpia stretches parallel to the transverse axis of the Forum. The huge 38-meter column is entwined with a continuous belt of reliefs depicting Trajan's victorious campaigns.

A new type of public building for the court and commercial transactions appeared - the Greek basilica. basilike is the royal house. The rectangular building in the plan was divided into three to five naves by rows of columns, with the middle nave being higher than the side naves. volume covered by a spherical dome with a diameter of 43.2 m with a light hole in the center. The interior is finished with polychrome marble

At the third stage of the imperial period (III century AD), architecture is characterized by an increased interest in the decorative principle, on a grandiose scale. So, the baths of Caracalla were built - a complex complex of public baths for 1800 people, including swimming pools, baths, libraries, shops, etc., grandiose terms Diocletian is a huge rectangular building with rooms covered with domes.

In the Alpine and Danube provinces from the 1st century. n. NS. many cities grew up according to the Roman type - with arches, temples, amphitheaters. In the II century. n. NS. the Syrian city of Palmyra is gaining in importance. Its architectural structures were distinguished by the ancient oriental splendor of decorative elements. Not far from Palmyra was the Baalbek cultural center - the sanctuary of the Roman local gods (I-III centuries AD) - colossal in size. So, the height of the Corinthian columns of the Temple of Jupiter is about 20 m.

It should be noted that in the principles of constructing the Parthenon plan, which were identified by architectural historians, there are not only features of ancient traditions, but also some innovations that can be considered the birth of new traditions. The Greeks used ancient methods of proportioning, but gave them their own proportionality. The square, laid in the basis of the Parthenon plan, had absolute dimensions, already calculated in Greek measures of length. This is one hundred Greek feet, which in modern terms is 30.86 m. This fact has a special, truly epochal significance. From this time until the end of the period of Antiquity, all the main structures of their time and their state system were built on the basis of a square with a side of one hundred attic feet. This proportionality can be revealed in the construction of the composition of the plans of the Pantheon in Rome and the temple of Hagia Sophia of Constantinople.

The Roman Pantheon (118-128) is a construction of the period when the Roman Empire was moving towards the apogee of its development. It was conceived and built as a unique, one-of-a-kind building. Emperor Hadrian himself was directly related to the idea of ​​erecting the Pantheon (this information is legendary and, of course, not conclusive, but in this form it is very eloquent). The Pantheon became the architectural embodiment of the pivotal religious idea of ​​imperial Rome about uniting together the beliefs and deities of different peoples. The volumetric-spatial composition of the Pantheon building is very simple. The volume is extremely close to a simple geometric shape, or, one might say, consists of simple geometric elements.

The main volume of the temple can be imagined as a thick-walled cylinder with an internal diameter of 43.2 m and a wall thickness of about six meters.

The cylindrical volume is covered with a hemispherical dome. The dome has a hemispherical outline only in the interior, from the outside it looks completely different. The height of the cylindrical part is calculated so that if the generatrix of the dome's hemisphere is extended downward, then it should touch the ground. Figuratively, the hemisphere of the dome of the Pantheon symbolizes the sky, and the entire interior is the universe, because pagan deities exist not only in heaven, but also on earth. The impression made by this structure on the viewer is truly stunning. Of course, both the geometric construction and the effect of the impact on a person, all this did not happen by chance, but was originally laid down in the ideological and artistic "program" of the temple by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The ideological background is also read in the application of some architectural techniques. As you know, the supreme god of the host of Latin gods is Jupiter, an analogue of the Greek Zeus. But in the concepts of the supreme deity among the Greeks and Romans, there were serious differences. The views of the Romans were influenced by the legacy of the Etruscans, whose deities did not have an anthropomorphic image. Jupiter was identified with the light of the sky. Therefore, the main element of the dome was the opion - a round hole at the zenith of the dome. When on a sunny day a column of blinding light burst into the twilight of the temple, believers imagined that this was Jupiter, who entered the temple. The image of the interior space of the Pantheon, created by Roman architects, is one of the strongest in world architecture for the entire time of its existence.

Strictly speaking, round temples (folos) were built earlier, already in classical Greece. Round temples dedicated to all gods were created in the Hellenistic era, and in Rome the first cylindrical Pantheon was built at the end of the 1st century. by order of Agripa.

All these structures were not so impressive in size, and, apparently, not so impressive in their own way. architectural solution... However, the fact that the idea itself was already in the air should be remembered. The fact that the Pantheon plan is based on a hundred-foot square, the inner circle of the Pantheon plan is described around this square, is also not accidental.

This is a continuation of tradition, a declaration of inextricable ties with the culture of the preceding era. It should not be forgotten that until the early period of the Empire, Rome was not at all a leader in the field of culture and art, following the paths laid by the Etruscans, the Hellenized peoples of the Italic peninsula (for example, the Samnites, whose cities the Romans eventually rebuilt and turned into their own). In fact, the proportions of the Pantheon are not limited to just one hundred feet square. The entire Pantheon is strictly proportional, almost all of its elements can be calculated and built in a geometric way. However, these proportional laws are less important for us, since they are of a secondary, auxiliary character.

The Roman Pantheon was conceived and built as a unique temple. In Rome, there were other unique structures: the Colosseum, Tabularia, the giant baths of Diocletian, Caracalla. But all these structures are unique in a completely different way. The functional diagram of the Colosseum differs little from those used in other large circuses. The volumetric-spatial structure of all amphitheaters was based on a typical element - an arched-order cell. From such cells, as from the constructor, many Roman public buildings, circuses, theaters, and some administrative buildings, such as Tabularius, were "assembled". In other words, the uniqueness of the Colosseum is only in its extraordinary size.

The Colosseum is the largest among many large amphitheaters, the first among equals comparable to it.

The provinces were flourishing. The Roman Empire became the slave-owning empire of the Mediterranean. Rome itself took on the appearance of a world power. End I and early. II century n. NS. the period of the reign of the Flavians and Trajan - the time of the creation of grandiose architectural complexes, structures of a large spatial scale.

Until now, the ruins of the giant palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine (1st century AD) amaze with their austere grandeur.

The epitome of the power and historical significance of Imperial Rome were the triumphal structures that celebrated the military victories of Rome. Triumphal arches and columns were erected not only in Italy, but also in the provinces for the glory of Rome. Roman buildings were active conductors of Roman culture and ideology there.

The arches were built for various reasons - both in honor of victories and as a sign of the consecration of new cities. However, their primary meaning is associated with triumph - a solemn procession in honor of victory over the enemy. Passing through the arch, the emperor returned to hometown already in a new capacity. The arch was the border of one's own and another's world. At the entrance to the Roman Forum to commemorate the victory of the Romans in the Judean War, the marble Arch of Triumph of Titus (81 AD) was erected to suppress an uprising in Judea. Titus, considered a sane and noble emperor, ruled for a relatively short time (79-81). Perfect in form, sparkling white single-span arch 15.4 m high, 5.33 m wide served as the basis of the sculptural group of the emperor on a chariot.

2 The Colosseum is an architectural masterpiece. 70-80 n. NS

The Colosseum is the largest of the ancient Roman amphitheaters, a famous monument of ancient Rome and one of the most remarkable structures in the world. For a long time, the Colosseum was for the inhabitants of Rome and visitors the main place for entertainment, such as gladiator fights, animal baiting, sea battles (naumachia). It is located in the hollow between the Esquiline, Palatine and Celievsky hills, in the place where there was a pond that belonged to the Golden House of Nero. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater because it was a collective edifice of the Flavian emperors.

Like other Roman amphitheaters, the Flavian Amphitheater presents an ellipse in plan, the middle of which is occupied by an arena and the concentric rings of spectator seats surrounding it. The Colosseum differs from all structures of this kind in its size. This is the most grandiose antique amphitheater: the length of its outer ellipse is 524 m, the length of the arena is 85.75 m, its width is 53.62 m, the height of its walls is from 48 to 50 meters. With such a size, it could accommodate about 50 thousand spectators.

The walls of the Colosseum are built from large pieces or blocks of travertine stone or travertine marble that was quarried in the nearby town of Tivoli. The blocks were interconnected by steel ties with a total weight of about 300 tons; local tuff and bricks were also used for the internal parts. The Flavian Amphitheater was built on a 13-meter-thick concrete foundation.

An architectural and logistic solution applied in the Colosseum and named vomitoria from lat. vomere "to spew", is still used in the construction of stadiums: many entrances are evenly distributed around the entire perimeter of the building.

Thanks to this, the public could fill the Colosseum in 15 minutes and leave in 5. The Colosseum in Rome had 80 entrances, of which 4 were intended for the highest nobility. These seats were located around the entire arena in the form of rows of stone benches, rising one above the other. The bottom row, or podium, was assigned exclusively to the emperor, his family, senators and vestals, and the emperor had a special, exalted seat.

The podium was separated from the arena by a parapet high enough to protect spectators from the attack of animals released on it. This was followed by seats for the public, forming three tiers, corresponding to the tiers of the facade of the building. In the first tier, which contained 20 rows of benches, the city authorities and persons belonging to the horse class sat, the second tier, which consisted of 16 rows of benches, was intended for people with the rights of Roman citizenship. The wall separating the second tier from the third was rather high, while the benches of the third tier were located on a steeper inclined surface, this device was intended to give visitors of the third tier the opportunity to better see the arena and everything that happens on it. The spectators of the third tier belonged to the lower classes.

On the roof of the Colosseum, during the performances, the sailors of the Imperial Navy were placed, sent to stretch a huge awning over the amphitheater to protect the audience from the scorching rays of the sun or from bad weather. This awning was attached with ropes to the masts placed along the upper edge of the wall. All arched spans of the second and third floors were decorated with statues that have survived to this day. On the platform in front of the amphitheater, there was a thirty-meter bronze statue of Nero, called the Colossus. It is believed that the name Colosseum - colossal - originated just from this colossus. The construction of the amphitheater was started by Emperor Vespasian after his victories in Judea. The construction was completed in 80 by the emperor Titus.

The Colosseum has long been considered a symbol of the greatness of Rome. The Colosseum was a spectacular theater where many animals were killed. But already in 405, the emperor Honorius banned gladiatorial fights, and later animal persecution was also prohibited. The Colosseum has ceased to be the main arena of Rome. At the end of the 13th century, the Colosseum in Rome was turned into a quarry. Houses and churches were built from it, in 1495 the office of the Pope was built from the materials of the Colosseum, and in the 16th century bridges were built from the squares of the "giant".

Subsequently, the arena of the legendary Roman amphitheater has long been associated with the torture of early Christians. So, in 1744, the Colosseum was consecrated in memory of the Christian martyrs who died here in battle with wild animals in front of the raging Roman crowds. A cross still stands in the center of the Colosseum. In the XXI century, the Colosseum in Rome was among the contenders for the title of one of the seven New Wonders of the World, and according to the results of the vote, which were announced on July 7, 2007, it was recognized as one of the 7 New Wonders of the World.

3 Pantheon - temple of all gods 125 AD

An outstanding structure with a centric circular plan is the Roman, "temple of all gods" of the Roman Empire, the Pantheon (125 AD) - the most beautiful and best preserved monument of ancient Rome. This most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple under the emperor Hadrian was rebuilt from a circular pool by Apollodorus of Damascus, the author of the largest architectural ensemble Ancient Rome - Trajan's Forum. The Pantheon accommodates over two thousand people.

Its space is covered with a dome of a bold design with a diameter of 43 m, which remained unsurpassed until the second half of the 19th century. and served as a model for domed construction for all subsequent centuries.

The construction of the Pantheon testifies to the flourishing of architectural thought in Ancient Rome. Its beauty is in the harmonious combination of clear volumes: the cylinder of the rotunda, the hemisphere of the dome and the parallelepiped of the portico.

The walls of the rotunda rest on a concrete foundation 4.5 m deep and 7.3 m thick. The walls are 6.3 m thick. The rotunda wall consists of eight pylons - pylons connected by arches. The portico with two rows of columns of eight looks like the entrance to the temple - pronaos. The imposing fluted monolithic columns are carved from red Egyptian granite, and their capitals and bases are from Greek marble. The portico disguises the heavy cylinder of the temple with its splendor. Protruding strongly into a small square in front of the Pantheon, it seems especially large and hides behind it a colossal massive rotunda of the temple.

The artistic image of the Pantheon is based on strict calculation. The diameter of the rotunda is equal to the total height of the inner space of the temple, 43 m, so if a ball is inscribed in its space, half of it forms a dome.

In perfect harmonious forms of a circle and a ball, the architect embodies the idea of ​​complete rest, creates the impression of a special, sublime grandeur. The interior decoration of the temple - marble facings and knocking decorations - is unusually solemn. Outside, the first tier of the rotunda is faced with marble, the two upper tiers are plastered.

The dome of the Pantheon reaches 43 m in diameter, and its thickness is about 1 m, it was not surpassed by the domes of the temples of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Modern times, until the end of the XIX century. The upper area of ​​the dome is made of pumice concrete to reduce the weight of the dome. A round hole 9 m in diameter was left in the center of the dome for illumination. The outside of the building is unusually massive. A solid ring of blank walls, fifty-six meters in diameter, closes it. The dome appears to be pressed into these walls, passing to them in rows of flat ledges. The structure forms a monolithic block, under the weight of which the earth seems to bend. The deep portico does not in the least soften this powerful gravity effect. Its columns rise to almost fifteen meters in height. Their solid trunks are hewn from deep red Egyptian granite. Their Corinthian marble capitals have turned black with age, giving the structure a somewhat gloomy splendor.

The inner space of the ancient temple is huge, solemn, but filled with soft, pacifying light. The diameter of the round hall is just over forty-three meters. The walls faced with marble are cut with deep niches, sometimes rectangular, sometimes semicircular. The colonnades separating them from the main part of the hall form openwork curtains that allow this space to preserve perfectly round borders, but at the same time not be geometrically closed.

The ring-shaped overhead entablature and the attic tier dissected by panels above it smoothly describe the circumference of the hall, interrupted, however, by the entrance arch and the conch of the main exedra in the depths.

The verticals of the columns, pilasters, panels attract the eye to the hemispherical dome crowning the hall, in which the entire space of the temple is brought to an unprecedented harmonious unity.

The Pantheon Dome is a true marvel of engineering and fine artistic taste. This is a regular hemisphere with a diameter of 43.2 meters, the dimensions of its span were surpassed only in the 20th century. Its height is equal to the height of the walls on which it rests. Heavy and massive on the outside, it rests on the retaining walls inside with extraordinary calmness and lightness. Visually lightening it, five rows of escaping caissons collect soft dusk in their recesses, and one can imagine that the gilded rosettes that once adorned them glittered like stars

For a long time, the Pantheon remained a model for many architects; it won over with its simplicity and integrity of design. Repeatedly famous architects have tried to design and build a building surpassing the Pantheon in size and perfection of embodiment. However, as a true masterpiece, he remained unique. The Pantheon still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument of ancient Roman architecture that was not destroyed or rebuilt in the Middle Ages. Many Christian churches were erected in imitation of the Pantheon. The most famous of these is the Parisian Pantheon.

CONCLUSION

The architecture of Ancient Rome left a huge legacy to mankind, the significance of which can hardly be overestimated. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a huge part of the world. The art of the Roman era has left many remarkable monuments in a wide variety of areas. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and brought to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and creative skills of the people to whom it belonged, the place that this people occupied in the grand empire. The Roman state is very difficult. He was the only one to have the mission of parting with the millennial world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of Christian art in the modern era.

The Romans learned how to build arches from stone, simple vaults and domes to cover buildings, they also began to use lime mortar to hold stones together. It was a huge step forward in construction engineering. Now it was possible to build structures of more varied layout and to overlap large interior rooms. For example, the circular interior of the Roman pantheon — the temple of all the gods — was 40 meters across. It was covered with a giant dome, which later became a model for architects and builders for centuries.

The Romans took over the Greek columns. They preferred the Corinthian style as the most opulent. In Roman buildings, columns began to lose their original purpose of being a support for any part of the building. They turned into decoration, since the arches and vaults were held even without them. Semi-columns and rectangular pilasters were often used.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1.Alferova M.A. History and legends of Ancient Rome M., 2006.

.Blavatsky V.D. Architecture of Ancient Rome M., 1938.

.V.A. Golovashin Culturology M., 2004

.Dozhdev D.V. Roman private law. Uch. for universities. -M., 1996

.Kirillin V.A. Ancient Rome M., 1986

.Kolpinsky Yu.D. Monuments of world art M., 1970

.Kuzishchin V.I., Gvozdeva I.A.History of Ancient Rome M., 2008

.Mironov V.B. Ancient Rome M., 2007

.Nikolaev D.V. The culture Of the ancient world... - SPb, 2010

.Yarkho V.N. Ancient culture - M., 1995.

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