The city is a monument of modern architecture in South America. The architecture of the ancient civilizations of America

The most interesting and important monuments of ancient American culture are located on the plateaus of Central America, in Old Mexico and Yucatan, they testify to the high culture of the peoples who inhabited this territory: the Toltecs, Aztecs, Mayans and Incas.

These are works of building art and sculpture, standing here partly alone, close to residential places, partly found in whole masses in the form of ruins of large cities (commonly called casas piedras).

Although in general they have the same character and represent a picture of the same art based on the simplest principles, it is impossible, at least, not to distinguish between two different degrees of development between them. Monuments in Oaxaca, Guatemala and Yucatan belong to one of them, more perfect and, in any case, earlier; between them by nationalities and centuries is impossible.

The ruins found in Mexico are mostly the remains of either temples or fortifications. Their construction is notable for its massiveness, but at the same time noble taste and bears the stamp of art, which has already achieved a certain development. Some of the temples were erected on the upper platforms of huge stepped pyramids, lined with stone blocks outside, and filled with stones and earth inside.

The walls, columns and pylons are very massive, usually the so-called false vaults. The surface of the walls is decorated with horizontal belts with relief geometric patterns. The overall composition is complemented by sculptural elements, specific ornaments not found anywhere else, and hieroglyphs.

The main building material, especially in the construction of significant structures, was stone; tools - stone hammers. With their help, mighty fortresses, roads, water conduits were created; with obsidian knives, they cut off the stems, from the fibers of which the ropes for suspension bridges were woven.

Aztec architecture - Teotihuacan

On the territory of the Mexican plateau (average altitude of 2300 m above sea level), different cultures came to replace each other until it became the center of the Aztec kingdom.

Significant monuments of that time include buildings in Teotihuacan, an important religious center, where many palaces, stepped temples were concentrated and the grandiose pyramids of the Sun and the Moon were located. The art of that period is notable for its rigor and simplicity, although the structures and their sculptural design are of superhuman proportions.

In the X century. Teotihuacan was occupied by the Toltecs. Their capital was Tula. Numerous monuments of that time have been preserved here. Toltec art is characterized by outstanding ornamental stone compositions. The ruins of entire cities are found in Tula (Tollan), the ancient city of the Toltecs, at Papantla and Mapilque in Veracruz, at Palenque in the province of Chiapas and at Okozingo in the province of the same name.

In the XIV century. the Aztecs appeared in Mexico and founded the capital of their state, Tenochtitlan, here. Aztec architecture, with the exception of ornamental motifs, develops the Toltec tradition - and they built pyramids with decorative friezes.

The Mayan state occupied the territory of present-day Honduras, the Guatemalan Plateau and the Yucatan Peninsula (now Mexico).

At an altitude of about 3000 m, on a plateau located at the eastern border of the Rio Usumacinta basin, in the foothills of the Sierra Oriental de Chiapas, are the mysterious ancient ruins of Palenque. At present, a state reserve has been opened here. Often shrouded in fog and surrounded by dense forests, the mysterious ruins are resounded only by the cries of howler monkeys. The ancient city makes one of the most powerful impressions for travelers among the monuments of the South American continent. Forest thickets served this mystical place good protection. At one time, the Spanish conquistador Cortez passed next to Palenque and did not notice him behind the lush vegetation that completely hid the city.

The first settlers appeared here in 100 BC. BC, but the peak of the city's heyday fell on the period from 600 to 800 AD. NS. The complex consists of two main parts: the official one and the settlements surrounded by fields where various agricultural crops were grown.

In the official part of the city, there are many buildings that were of great importance in the social and religious life of the Maya Indians: the Pyramid (or temple) of the Inscriptions, the palace, the Temple of the Sun, the Temple of the Earl, the Temple of Skulls, the Temple of the Cross, the Temple of the Prosperous Cross, a ball game field. All these buildings were erected under the personal patronage of the rulers of Palenque, the most prominent of whom was Pacal, who ascended the throne in 615 AD. NS. at the age of 12 and died in 683

Pacal is buried in a stone sarcophagus under a pyramid, often called the Temple of the Inscriptions. The body of the ruler was richly decorated with jade ornaments, and a jade mask was also put on his face. The sarcophagus is covered with an elaborately carved slab. The Temple of the Inscriptions, perhaps the most famous of all the structures in Palenque, was first thoroughly studied in 1952. Its height reaches 23 m - this is the tallest building of the entire complex; it has a complex eight-level structure. 69 steep steps lead to the top.

Throughout its history, Palenque was ruled by 12 monarchs, each of whom simultaneously served as a secular ruler, high priest and commander-in-chief. Pacal and his children left the most striking mark in history: it was during their reign that the bulk of the world-famous mysterious buildings were created. After the death of Pakal, his son Chan-Balum (the name translates as "Snake-Jaguar") ascended the throne and ruled for 18 years. In addition to the creation of the Pyramid of Inscriptions, the period of his reign was marked by the construction of the Temple of the Cross, the Temple of the Cross of Prosperity and the Temple of the Sun.

The culture until the Mayan period reaches its heyday (classical period) in the 7th and 8th centuries, when outstanding architectural and sculptural monuments, memorial steles, colonnades, altars, temples and palaces were created. Several cities, significant in their planning and architecture, were founded, for example, Chichen Itza with several dozen pyramids and temples - the Warriors, the Feathered Serpent or the Jaguar.

Mayan architecture - pyramids at Chichen Itza

The Mayan builders became extremely quickly convinced that wooden floor beams are destroyed by termites in a matter of years and completely switched to the construction of "complex" vaults from large stone blocks - because of this, the internal spaces of buildings are even narrower than in Mesopotamia.

Palenque

Culture on the territory of present-day Peru has gone through several stages of development. From the first period (from 1200 to 200 BC) only a few temples have survived.

A significant monument of the third period (from 900 to 1000 AD) is the large truncated pyramid, called the "solar pyramid" at Moche, on the northern coast. For its construction, it took about 130 million pieces of raw bricks.

In the period from 1000 to 1300 in the south of Peru, the city of Tiahuanaco flourishes near Lake Titicaca, located at an altitude of 4000 m above sea level. Here, structures have been erected from huge blocks of basalt and sandstone with interesting monolithic gates, decorated with rich relief decor. The "decor" on the Tiwanaku's monolithic gates, according to most scholars, is a gigantic calendar.

The large temple in Mexico, which stood in the middle of the city, was so large that, according to Cortés, it could hold 500 horses. It was a pyramid of five floors, 38 m in height, had a base of 95 m and was decorated with two towers.

In the first half of the XIII century. the Inca empire emerges with the capital Cuzco. Between 1300 and 1400, carefully planned big cities with wide streets, terraces, fortress walls decorated with relief pyramids. The cities had sewerage systems and water supply devices.

The symbol of the power of the Inca empire was the city of Cuzco, one of the most beautiful cities in the world, on the territory of which there were hundreds of palaces and temples. The main square in the city was the Huacapata square (sacred terrace), from which the roads to the four main provinces of the country diverged. There were also palaces, one of which had an area of ​​30 by 160 meters. The wealth of the rulers of the Incas can be judged at least by the fact that when the old emperor of the Incas died, his body was embalmed and placed in the palace, which henceforth became a sanctuary. His successor had to build for himself new palace... No other European ruler could afford such a luxury. But most of all I amazed with its magnificence temple complex Cuzco Coricancha (golden courtyard). Its main building was the temple of the sun god Inti, in which there were a huge number of tons of gold alone. Golden windows, doors, walls, roofs, floors, ceilings, cult objects amazed people. The center of the temple was a multi-meter disc of pure gold, symbolizing the sun god. Near the temple was the courtyard of Intipampa (golden field), where there were trees, plants and herbs made of gold, deer, butterflies, shepherds, etc., and all this was done in full size and everything moved (!) With the help of the most skillful mechanisms. It was truly a miracle unparalleled in the world.

The most important and oldest monuments of the country include two pyramids at San Juan de Teotihuacan, in the valley of Mexico, standing in a circle of less massive, but high pyramids. Other pyramids of a remarkable device are found in San Cristobal Teopantepec, in Santa Cruz del Quihe, at Jochicalco in Guatusco, at Cuernavaca and elsewhere.

All the architecture of Central America and Mexico has basically the beginning of a pyramid. This is noticeable mainly in religious monuments and, to a lesser extent, in temple and palace buildings. But the facades of other buildings also resemble somewhat the pyramidal shape, since the size of individual floors is gradually decreasing.

In the architecture of the Mexicans, the style they have mastered is strictly observed, although it does not indicate a high degree of development. All details and subdivisions are executed on the basis of the simplest laws. To decorate the walls, horizontal rows of meanders, caissons, etc. were used.In general, buildings built on flat terrain, or on terraces, or on top of hills, were represented by simple quadrangular masses with rectilinearly covered portals and with a simple installation of four pillars, on which lay the roof with rich decorations. With the lack of pillars, a variety of internal arrangements was impossible.

Central America is especially rich in antiquities and ruins of the cities of Honduras and Yucatan. In the first of these states, Comayagua, Harumela and Lahamina are remarkable, near which hewn stones and very beautifully painted vases were found; further Teampua with 250-300 different buildings, between which one is 95 m long and contains different pyramids, especially Copan, whose monuments and ornaments can compete with the Egyptian ones. Colossal statues of idols are often found on the ridges of mountains up to 700 m in height.

Up to twenty ruins of cities have already been discovered in Yucatan, striking in their magnificence and their vastness. Palaces often consist of various buildings lying one above the other, as, for example, in Tsai, Labna, Kabakh, Uxmal, etc .; colossal staircases lead from one terrace to another and are decorated on both sides with sculptural images of snakes, whose heads touch the ground, and a huge body soars upward.

While the newest monuments present an extraordinary abundance of ornamentation, the older ones are distinguished by simplicity, serious style and strength, such as, for example, the famous pyramidal temple in Palenque in Guatemala, the front side of which is decorated with various figures and inscriptions, while the inside of the walls are covered with sculptural works and bas-reliefs of mythological content.

Civilizations of ancient America

By the time the Spanish ships appeared off the east coast of the New World, this vast continent, including the West Indies, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and peoples at different levels of development.

Most of them were hunters, fishermen, gatherers or primitive farmers, only in two relatively small areas of the western hemisphere - in Mesoamerica and the Andes - the Spaniards met highly developed Indian civilizations. The highest cultural achievements of pre-Columbian America were born on their territory. By the time of its "discovery", in 1492 d, up to 2/3 of the total population of the continent lived there, although by their size these areas accounted for only 6.2% of its total area. It was here that the centers of origin of American agriculture were located, and at the turn of our era, the original civilizations of the ancestors of the Nahua, Maya, Zapotecs, Quechua, Aymara, etc.

In the scientific literature, this territory is called Middle America or the Zone of High Civilizations. It is subdivided into two regions - northern - Mesoamerica and southern - Andean region (Bolivia - Peru), with an intermediate zone between them (southern part of Central America, Colombia, Ecuador), where cultural although achievements have reached a significant degree, they have not risen to the heights of statehood and civilization. The arrival of the European conquerors interrupted any independent development of the aboriginal population of these areas. Only now, thanks to the work of several generations of archaeologists, are we finally beginning to understand how rich and vibrant the history of pre-Columbian America was.

The New World is also a unique historical laboratory, since the process of development of local culture took place on its own, on the whole, starting from the Late Paleolithic era (30-20 thousand years ago) - the time of the continent's settlement from Northeast Asia through the Bering Strait and Alaska - and up to until he was put to an end by the invasion of European conquerors. Thus, in the New World, almost all the main stages of the ancient history of mankind can be traced: from primitive mammoth hunters to the builders of the first cities - the centers of early class states and civilizations. Already a simple comparison of the path traversed by the indigenous population of America in the pre-Columbian era with the milestones in the history of the Old World gives an unusually large amount for identifying general historical patterns.

The term "discovery of America" ​​by Columbus itself, which is often found in historical works of both Soviet and foreign authors, also requires some clarification.

More than once it was rightly pointed out that this term is actually incorrect, since before Columbus the shores of the New World were reached from the east by the Romans, Vikings, etc., and from the west by the Polynesians, Chinese, Japanese, etc. culture was not one-sided. For Europe, the discovery of America had colossal political, economic, and intellectual implications.

The Indian civilizations of the New World managed to reach their apogee without the most important technical achievements of antiquity, which included the smelting of iron and steel, the breeding of domestic animals (especially draft and pack animals), wheeled transport, a potter's wheel, plow farming, an arch in architecture, etc. In the Andean region, the processing of non-ferrous metals, gold and silver was carried out as early as the II millennium BC. e., and by the time the Europeans arrived, the Incas widely used in their practice not only bronze weapons, but also bronze tools. However, in Mesoamerica, metals (except iron) appeared already at the end of the civilizations of the classical period (I millennium AD) and were used mainly for the manufacture of jewelry and religious objects.

The rapid progress of archaeological research in the most important centers of Central America, combined with the efforts of linguists, ethnographers, historians, anthropologists, etc. general form, to trace the main stages of development of the ancient civilization in the New World, to identify its characteristic features and characteristics.

We will, of course, only talk about the most outstanding Indian civilizations of Mesoamerica and the Andean region.

A special cultural and geographical area - Mesoamerica (or Mesoamerica) - is the northern region of the zone of highly developed civilization of the New World and includes Central and Southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize (formerly British Honduras), western regions of El Salvador and Honduras. In this area, characterized by a variety of natural conditions and a variegated ethnic composition, by the end of the 1st millennium BC. NS. there was a transition from a primitive communal system to an early class state, which immediately promoted the local Indians to the number of the most developed peoples Ancient America... For over one and a half thousand years, which separates the emergence of civilization from the Spanish conquest, the borders of Mesoamerica have undergone significant changes. In general, the era of civilization within this cultural and geographical area can be divided into two periods: early, or classical (the turn of the century - IX century. NS.).

In the 1st millennium AD NS. the zone of high cultures of Mesoamerica did not include Western and Northwestern Mexico. The northern border of civilization then ran along the river. Lerma and coincided with the northern limits of the Teotihuacan culture. The southern borders of Mesoamerica were at the same time the southern border of the Mayan civilization, passing along the river. Ulua in Western Honduras and r. Lempa in West El Salvador. In the postclassical time, the western (Tarascan state) and part of the northern (Zacatecas, Casas Grandes) regions of Mexico are also included in Mesoamerica, thereby significantly expanding its overall territory.

"OLMEX PROBLEM"

The most significant Mesoamerican cultures of the classical period are the Teotihuacan (Central Mexico) and Mayan (southern Mexican regions, Belize, Guatemala, western El Salvador and Honduras). But first, a few words about the "first civilization" of Mesoamerica - the culture of the "Olmecs" on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico (Tabasco, Veracruz). The population of these areas at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. (800-400 BC) reached a high level of culture: at this time the first "ritual centers" appeared in La Venta, San Lorenzo and Tres Zapotes, pyramids of adoba (adobe) and clay were built, and carved stone monuments with themes of predominantly mythological and religious content.

Among the latter, there are giant anthropomorphic stone heads in helmets, the weight of which sometimes reaches 20 tons. The “Olmec” style of art is characterized by low-relief carving on basalt and jade. Its main motive was the figure of a crying plump child with the features of a jaguar attached to it. These "baby jaguars" adorned graceful jade amulets, massive gopors-Celts (the Olmecs had a cult of a stone ax as a symbol of fertility), and giant basalt steles. Another notable feature of the "Olmec" culture was the following ritual: in deep pits in the central squares of settlements, caches were arranged with offerings to the gods in the form of hewn blocks of jade and serpentine, Celtic axes and figurines made of the same materials, etc., with a total weight of tens of centners ... These materials were delivered to the "Olmec" centers from afar: for example, to La Venta - from a distance of 160 and even 500 km. Excavations in another “Olmec” village, San Lorenzo, also revealed giant heads and rows of ritually buried monumental sculptures in a purely “Olmec” style.

According to a series of radiocarbon dates, this refers to the years 1200-900. BC NS. It was on the basis of the above data that the hypothesis was formulated that the "Olmecs" are the creators of the earliest civilization of Mesoamerica (1200-900 BC) and from it all other highly developed cultures of Mesoamerica - Zapotec, Teotihuacan, Maya and others. At the same time, today we have to say that the "Olmec" problem is still very far from being solved. We do not know about the ethnicity of the carriers of this culture (the term "Olmecs" is borrowed from the name of those ethnic groups who settled on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico on the eve of the Conquest). There is no clarity about the main stages in the development of the Olmec culture, the exact chronology and material characteristics of these stages. The general territory of the spread of this culture, its socio-political organization is also unknown.

In our opinion, the culture of the "Olmecs" with all its manifestations reflects a long path of development: from the end of the 2nd millennium BC to the end of the 2nd millennium BC. NS. until the middle - the last centuries of the 1st millennium BC NS. It can be assumed that "ritual centers" with monumental sculpture appear in Veracruz and Tabasco approximately in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. NS. (possibly even 800 BC), as in La Venta. But everything that is presented there archaeologically in 800-400 years. BC e., fully corresponds to the level of "chiefdoms", "alliances of tribes", ie, the final stage of the primitive era. It is significant that the first examples of writing and calendar known to us appear on the "Olmec" monuments only from the 1st century BC. BC NS. (stele C in TresSapotes, etc.). On the other hand, the same "ritual centers" - with pyramids, monuments and calendar hieroglyphic inscriptions - are presented in Oaxaca from the 7th-6th centuries. BC BC, and without inscriptions - in mountainous Guatemala, among the ancestors of the Maya, at least from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. NS. Thus, the question of the “ancestor culture” that gave birth to all the others is no longer for Mesoamerica: apparently, there was a parallel development in several key areas at once - the Mexico City Valley, the Oaxaca Valley, mountainous Guatemala, the Mayan plains, etc.

TEOTIHUACAN

50 km northeast of Mexico City, where the high mountain ranges part, forming a large and fertile valley (this is an offshoot of the valley of Mexico City), there are the ruins of Teotihuacan - in the past the capital the most ancient civilization Central Mexico, an important cultural, political, administrative, economic and cult center not only of this region, but of the whole of Mesoamerica in the 1st millennium AD. NS.

According to scientists, by 600 AD. BC - the moment of the highest prosperity - the total area of ​​the city was over 18 square meters. km, and the population is from 60 to 120 thousand people. The main ritual and administrative core of Teotihuacan, which was already formed by the 1st century. n. BC, was carefully planned around two wide streets intersecting at right angles and oriented to the cardinal points: from north to south the Road of the Dead avenue is over 5 km long, and from west to east - an unnamed avenue up to 4 km long.

It is interesting that at the northern end of the Road of the Dead there is a giant massif of the Pyramid of the Moon (height 42 m), built of mud bricks and faced with rough volcanic stone. In design and appearance, it is an exact copy of its older sister, the Pyramid of the Sun, located on the left side of the avenue and representing a grandiose five-tier structure with a flat top, on which the temple once stood. The height of the colossus is 64.5 m, the length of the sides of the base is 211, 207, 217 and 209 m, the total volume is 993 thousand cubic meters. m. It is assumed that the construction of the pyramid required the labor of at least 20 thousand people for 20-30 years.

At the intersection with the transverse avenue, the Road of the Dead rests on a vast complex of buildings erected on one gigantic low platform and united under the general name "Ciutadela", which means "citadel" in Spanish. One of the main researchers of the city, R. Millon (USA), believes that this is the "tekpan" (Aztec palace) of the ruler of Teotihuacan. In this ensemble of graceful buildings, a temple stands out in honor of the god Quetzalcoatl - the Feathered Serpent, the patron saint of culture and knowledge, the god of air and wind, one of the main deities of the local pantheon. The building of the temple itself is completely destroyed, but its pyramidal base, consisting of six gradually decreasing stone platforms, placed on top of each other, has been perfectly preserved.

The facade of the pyramid and the balustrade of the main staircase are decorated with the sculptural heads of Quetzalcoatl himself and the god of water and rain Tlaloc in the form of a butterfly. At the same time, the teeth of the heads of the Feathered Serpent were painted with white paint, and the eyes of the butterflies had false pupils from obsidian disks.

To the west of Ciutadela is a vast complex of buildings (approximately 400 × 600 m), which archaeologists consider as the city's main market. Along Teotihuacan's main avenue, the Road of the Dead, are the ruins of dozens of lush temple and palace structures. By now, some of them have been excavated and reconstructed, so that anyone can get a general idea of ​​their architecture and painting. Such is, for example, the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl or the Palace of the Feathered Snail (part of the premises of the palace has stone square columns with low-relief images of the Feathered Snail). The palace is a vast complex of residential, public and storage facilities grouped around courtyards. The walls of buildings are made of adobe or stone, plastered and often either painted in some bright color, or (especially inside) have colorful fresco paintings. and Tepan-titla

They depict people (representatives of the elite and priests), gods and animals (eagles, jaguars, etc.) Anthropomorphic (apparently, portrait) masks made of stone and clay (in the latter case, with multicolored coloring) are also a peculiar feature of the local culture. The 7th century AD in Teotihuacan, the original style of ceramics (cylindrical vases with or without legs with fresco painting or carved ornamentation and polishing) and terracotta figurines became widespread

The architecture of the city is dominated by buildings on pyramidal foundations of various heights, while the design of the latter is characterized by a combination of vertical and inclined surfaces (the style of a vertical "panel and slope").

The above-described ritual and administrative center of Teotihu-akan was surrounded on all sides by residential quarters in the form of clusters of block houses (up to 60 m long), planned for the cardinal points along a regular network of narrow straight streets. Each block consisted of residential, utility and utility rooms, set up around rectangular courtyards and apparently served as a habitat for a group of related families. These are one-storey buildings with flat roofs, made of mud brick, stone and wood. They are usually concentrated in larger units - "quarters" (Spanish barrio), and those, in turn, in four large "districts". Teotihuacan was the largest craft and trade center in Mesoamerica. Archaeologists have found in the city up to 500 craft workshops (of which - 300 workshops for processing obsidian), quarters of foreign traders and "diplomats" from Oaxaca (Zapotec culture) and from the Mayan territory. Products of the same Teotihuacan masters are found in the 1st millennium AD. NS. from Northern Mexico to Costa Rica. There is no doubt that the cultural, economic (and probably political) influence of the city during its greatest heyday extended to most of Mesoamerica.

And suddenly at the end of the 7th century. n. NS. the huge city suddenly perishes, destroyed by the flames of a gigantic fire. The causes of this catastrophe are still unclear. However, it should be recalled that Teotihuacan was in the 1st millennium AD. NS. the northern outpost of the zone of Mesoamerican civilizations. It bordered directly on the motley and restless world of the barbarian tribes of northern Mexico. Among them we find both sedentary farmers and roving tribes of hunters and gatherers. Teotihuacan, like the ancient agricultural civilizations of Central Asia, India and the Near East, constantly felt the pressure of these warlike tribes on its northern border. Under a certain set of circumstances, one of the enemy's campaigns into the interior of the country, apparently, ended with the capture and destruction of Teotihuacan itself. After this terrible defeat, the city never recovered, and new, more powerful forces came to the fore in Mesoamerican history - the city-states of Askapotsalco, Cholu-la, Sochikalko and later, from the 9th century. n. e., - the state of the Toltecs.

MAYAN CIVILIZATION OF THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (I-IX centuries A.D.)

The Maya, as if defying fate, settled for a long time in the inhospitable Central American jungle, building their white-stone cities there. Fifteen centuries before Columbus, they invented an accurate solar calendar and created the only developed hieroglyphic writing in America, used the concept of zero in mathematics, and confidently predicted solar and lunar eclipses. Already in the first centuries of our era, they achieved amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting.

But the Maya did not know metals, plows, wheeled carts, domestic animals, potter's wheel. In fact, based only on their set of tools, they were still Stone Age people. The origins of Mayan culture are shrouded in mystery. We only know that the emergence of the first "classical" Mayan civilization dates back to the turn of our era and is associated with the forest plains in southern Mexico and northern Guatemala. For many centuries, populous states and cities have existed here. But in the IX-X centuries. the heyday ended with a sudden and violent disaster.

The cities in the south of the country were abandoned, the population fell sharply, and soon tropical vegetation covered the monuments of former greatness with its green carpet. After the X century. the development of the Mayan culture, although already somewhat changed by the influence of the foreign conquerors, the Toltecs, who came from Central Mexico and from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, continued in the north - on the Yucatan Peninsula - and in the south - in the mountains of Guatemala. The Spaniards found there over two dozen small, constantly warring Indian states, each of which had its own dynasty of rulers. By the beginning of the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. the Maya Indians occupied a vast and varied natural area, including the modern Mexican states of Tabasco, Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo, as well as all of Guatemala, Belize, western regions of El Salvador and Honduras.

Mayan borders in the 1st millennium AD e., apparently, more or less coincided with those mentioned above. At present, most scientists distinguish three large cultural and geographical areas or zones within this territory: Northern (Yucatan Peninsula), Central (Northern Guatemala, Belize, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico) and Southern (mountainous Guatemala).

The beginning of the classical period in the low-lying forest areas of the Maya was marked by the emergence of such new cultural features as hieroglyphic writing (inscriptions on reliefs, steles, lintels, ceramics and frescoes, small plastic items), calendar dates for the Maya era (the so-called Long Count-the number of years dating from the mythical date 3113 BC), monumental stone architecture with a stepped "false" vault, the cult of early steles and altars, the specific style of ceramics and terracotta figurines, original wall paintings.

Architecture in the central part of any major Mayan city in the 1st millennium AD NS. represented by pyramidal hills and platforms of various sizes and heights. Inside, they are usually constructed from a mixture of earth and rubble, and faced on the outside with slabs of hewn stone, fastened with lime mortar. On their flat tops there are stone buildings: small buildings of one or three rooms on high tower-like pyramid-bases (the height of some of these pyramid-towers, such as, for example, in Tikal, reaches 60 m). These are probably temples. And the long multi-room ensembles on low platforms framing the inner open courtyards are most likely residences of the nobility or palaces, since the floors of these buildings are usually made in the form of a stepped vault, their walls are very massive, and the interiors are relatively narrow and small in size. Narrow doorways served as the only source of light in the rooms, so coolness and twilight reign inside the surviving temples and palaces. At the end of the classical period, the Maya developed ritual ball playgrounds - the third type of main monumental buildings in local cities. The main planning unit in Mayan cities was rectangular cobbled squares surrounded by monumental buildings. Very often, the most important ritual and administrative buildings were located on natural or artificially created elevations - "acropolis" (Piedras Negras, Copan, Tikal, etc.).

Ordinary dwellings were built of wood and clay under roofs of dry palm leaves and were probably similar to the Mayan huts of the 16th-20th centuries described by historians and ethnographers. In the classical period, as well as later, all residential buildings stood on low (1-1.5 m) platforms, faced with stone. A detached house is a rare phenomenon among the Maya. Typically, residential and utility rooms form groups of 2-5 buildings located around an open courtyard (patio) of a rectangular shape. This is the seat of a large patrilocal family. Residential “patio groups” tend to be combined into larger units, like a city “block” or part of it.

In the VI-IX centuries. Maya achieved the greatest success in the development of various types of non-applied art, and above all in monumental sculpture and painting. The sculptural schools of Palenque, Copan, Yaxchilan, Piedras-Negras achieve at this time a special subtlety of modeling, harmony of composition and naturalness in the transfer of the depicted characters (rulers, priests, dignitaries, warriors, servants and prisoners). The famous Bonampak frescoes (Chiapas, Mexico) dating back to the 8th century. n. e., represent a whole historical narrative: complex rituals and ceremonies, scenes of a raid on foreign villages, the sacrifice of prisoners, a festival, dances and processions of dignitaries and nobles.

Thanks to the works of American (T. Proskuryakov, D. Kelly, G. Berlin, J. Kubler, etc.) and Soviet (Yu.V. Knorozov, R.V. n. BC - steles, lintels, reliefs and panels (as well as hieroglyphic inscriptions on them) are memorial monuments in honor of the deeds of the Mayan rulers. They tell about the birth, accession to the throne, wars and conquests, dynastic marriages, ritual ceremonies and other important events in the life of the secular rulers of nearly two dozen city-states that existed, according to archeology, in the Central Maya region in the 1st millennium AD. NS.

The purpose of some pyramidal temples in Mayan cities is now defined in a completely different way. If before they were considered the sanctuaries of the most important gods of the pantheon, and the pyramid itself was only a high and monolithic stone pedestal for the temple, then recently, under the foundations and in the thickness of a number of such pyramids, it was possible to find magnificent tombs of kings and members of ruling dynasties (the discovery of A. Rus in the Temple Inscriptions, Palenque, etc.).

Noticeable changes have undergone in recent years and ideas about the nature, structure and functions of the large Mayan "centers" of the 1st millennium AD. NS. Extensive studies by US archaeologists in Tikal, Tsibil-chaltun, Etzna, Seibal, Bekan, and others have revealed the presence there of a significant and permanent population, handicraft production, imported products and many other features and signs characteristic of the ancient city in both the Old and New Light.

A real sensation in Mayan studies was the discovery by the American researcher Michael Ko of polychrome painted ceramics from the most magnificent burials of Mayan aristocrats and rulers of the 1st millennium AD. NS. Comparing the plots presented on these clay vases with the descriptions of the exploits of the twin heroes in the underworld from the Mayakichi epic Popol-Vuh (16th century), the scientist drew attention to their partial coincidence. This allowed Ko to suggest that the images and inscriptions on each vessel describe the death of the Mayan ruler, long journey his soul through the terrible labyrinths of the kingdom of the dead, overcoming all kinds of obstacles and the subsequent resurrection of the ruler, who ultimately turned into one of the heavenly gods. All the twists and turns of this dangerous journey completely repeated the myth of the adventures of twin heroes in the underworld from the Popol Vuh epic. In addition, the American researcher found that the inscriptions or their individual parts, presented on almost all painted polychrome vases of the 6th-9th centuries. n. e., are often repeated, that is, they have a standard character. The reading of these "standard inscriptions" (the so-called formula of revival) has been successfully carried out in recent years by the Soviet scientist Yu. V. Knorozov. Thanks to this, a completely new, previously unknown world has now opened up before us - the mythological ideas of the ancient Maya, their concept of life and death, religious beliefs and much more.

CIVILIZATION OF THE AZTECS

After the death of Teotihuacan, Central Mexico for many decades becomes the arena of dramatic and turbulent events: more and more waves of militant barbarian tribes "Chichimecs" invade here from the north and north-west, sweeping away the still surviving islets of the Teotihuacan civilization in Ascapozalco, Porteule suelo, etc. Finally, at the end of the 9th-beginning of the 10th century. as a result of the merger of these two streams - the alien ("Chichimec") and local (Teotihuacan) - in the northeast of the region, a powerful state of the Toltecs emerges with its center in Tule-Tollan (Hidalgo, Mexico).

But this state formation turned out to be short-lived. In 1160, the invasion of new groups of barbarians from the north crushed Tollan and marked the beginning of another period of instability in the political history of Mesoamerica. Among the warlike newcomers were the tenochki-Aztecs (Asthecs), a semi-barbarian tribe, directed to search for a better life by the instructions of their tribal god Huitzilopochtli. According to legend, it was divine providence that predetermined the choice of the site for the construction of the future Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, in 1325: on the deserted islands in the western part of the vast Lake Texcoco. At this time, in the valley of Mexico City, several city-states were fighting for leadership, among which the more powerful Ascapotsalco and Culhuacan stood out. The Aztecs intervened in these intricacies of local politics, acting as mercenaries from the most powerful and successful masters.

In 1427, the Aztecs organized a "triple league" - an alliance of the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan (Takuba) - and set about the consistent conquest of adjacent regions. By the time the Spaniards arrived at the beginning of the 16th century. the so-called Aztec empire covered a huge territory - about 200 thousand square meters. km with a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders stretched from northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico. The capital of the "empire" - Tenochtitlan - over time turned into a huge city, the area of ​​which was about 1200 hectares, and the number of inhabitants, according to various estimates, reached 120-300 thousand people.

This island city was connected to the mainland by three large stone dam roads, and there was a whole flotilla of canoe boats. Like Venice, Tenochtitlan was cut through by a regular network of canals and streets. The core of the city was formed by its ritual and administrative center: the "sacred site" - a 400 m long walled square, inside which were the main city temples ("Templo Major" - a temple with the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, the temple of Quetzal-Coatl, etc.), dwellings of priests, schools, playground for ritual ball games. Nearby were the ensembles of the magnificent palaces of the Aztec rulers - "Tlatoani". According to eyewitnesses, the palace of Montezuma (more precisely, Moctezuma) II had up to 300 rooms, had a large garden, a zoo, and baths.

Around the center were crowded residential quarters inhabited by merchants, artisans, farmers, officials, and soldiers. The huge Main Market and the smaller quarter bazaars traded in local and imported food and goods. The general impression of the magnificent Aztec capital is well conveyed by the words of an eyewitness and participant in the dramatic events of the conquest, the soldier Bernal Diaz del Castillo from the Cortez detachment. Standing on top of a high stepped pyramid, the conquistador looked in amazement at the strange and dynamic picture of the life of a huge pagan city: “And we saw a huge number of boats, some came with various loads, others ... with various goods ... All the houses of this great city ... were in the water , and from house to house you could only get through suspension bridges or boats. And we saw ... pagan temples and chapels, reminiscent of towers and fortresses, and they all sparkled with white and aroused admiration. "

Tenochtitlan was captured by Cortez after a three-month siege and a fierce struggle in 1521. And right on the ruins of the Aztec capital, from the stones of its palaces and temples, the Spaniards built new town- Mexico City, the rapidly growing center of its colonial possessions in the New World. Over time, the remains of the Aztec buildings were covered with multi-meter strata of modern life. Under these conditions, it is almost impossible to conduct systematic and extensive archaeological research of Aztec antiquities. Only occasionally in the course of excavation in the center of Mexico City are stone sculptures, the creations of ancient masters, born. Therefore, the discoveries of the late 70s and 80s became a real sensation. XX century during the excavation of the Main Temple of the Aztecs - "Templo Mayor" - in the very center of Mexico City, on Zocalo Square, between the Cathedral and the Presidential Palace. Now the sanctuaries of the gods Huitzilopochtli (the god of the sun and war, the head of the Aztec pantheon) and Tlaloc (the god of water and rain, the patron saint of agriculture) have already been opened, the remains of fresco paintings and stone sculpture have been discovered. Particularly noteworthy are a round stone with a diameter of over three meters with a low-relief image of the goddess Koyolshauhka, sister of Huitzilopochtli, 53 deep pit-holes filled with ritual offerings (stone figurines of gods, shells, corals, incense, ceramic vessels, necklaces, skulls of sacrificed people, etc.). ). The newly discovered materials (their total number exceeds several thousand) expanded the existing ideas about material culture, religion, trade, economic and political ties of the Aztecs during the heyday of their state in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

CIVILIZATION OF SOUTH AMERICA

What tribes and nationalities inhabited in ancient times Peru? The vast majority believe that they were the Incas. And it seems right. When in 1532 the Spanish conquistadors set foot on Peruvian land, the whole country, as well as Ecuador, Bolivia and Northern Chile, were part of the giant Inca Empire, or, as the Incas themselves called their state, Tahuantinsuyu. The total length of Tahuantinsuyu along the Pacific coast was over 4,300 km, and the population was at least 6 million. However, the Incas were only the outer facade of ancient Peru, behind which, as in Egypt or Mesopotamia, a long and glorious past was hidden.

At the end of the II millennium BC. NS. In the mountains of the northeastern regions of the country, the mysterious Chavin culture suddenly appeared, synchronous with the "Olmec" monuments of Mesoamerica and close to them in character (the cult of the feline predator - jaguar or cougar, stone pyramidal temples, elegant ceramics, etc.). Since the turn of our era, in the coastal zone of Peru, the Mochica civilization appears in the north, and the Nazca civilization in the south. Simultaneously with them, or a little later, the dynamic and original culture of Tiahuanaco was formed in the mountains of Bolivia and southern Peru (named after its central settlement, Tiahuanaco, near the southern shore of Lake Titicaca). What is characteristic of all the named early Peruvian-Bolivian civilizations?

First of all, they were born independently, at the same time or almost simultaneously with the classical civilizations of Mesoamerica, but without any noticeable ties with them. Further, although the ancient Peruvians did not create a hieroglyphic script or a complex calendar, their technology was generally better than that of the people of Mesoamerica. At a time when the Mesoamericans still lived entirely in the Stone Age, the Indians of Peru and Bolivia from the II millennium BC. NS. knew metallurgy, processed gold, silver, copper and their alloys and made from them not only jewelry and weapons, but (as in the case of copper) even the tips of agricultural tools - "digging sticks" and hoes. They, especially the creators of the Mochica culture, made magnificent ceramics with polychrome painting and figured modeling. Their cotton and wool fabrics were delicate and perfect. But especially elegant types of these products - tapestries, decorative fabrics, brocade and muslin - have, perhaps, no equal in the ancient world. Their beauty was only enhanced by the brightness of dyes prepared from various plants (for example, indigo) and minerals. These three important components of the local culture - metal products, ceramics and fabrics (well preserved in the dry and warm climate of the coast) - give a unique originality to all the named ancient Peruvian civilizations of the 1st millennium AD. NS.

The subsequent period (from the 10th century AD and later) was marked by an increase in the expansion of the population of mountainous regions (especially Tiahuanaco) into the Pacific coast zone. Then several new states arose here, the largest of which was Chimu, located in the north of this area, approximately from Timbeg to Lima. Its capital, Chan-Chan, occupied an area of ​​about 25 square meters. km and had a population of up to 25 thousand people. In the center of the city there were ten huge rectangles 400 × 200 m, enclosed by walls 12 m high - the palace ensembles of local kings. Around are smaller residences where officials, artisans and other groups of townspeople lived. After the death of the king, they were buried in his palace with all the riches, and the successor built himself a new building, which looked more like a castle or fortress than an ordinary house. It was in Chimu that an integrated network of irrigation canals was first created and roads were built connecting the mountains and the coast. This, in turn, explains both the impressive achievements of local culture and the significant concentration of the population in cities and villages.

At the same time, in the mountainous zone with its rugged relief, a large number of valleys and rivers almost isolated from each other, a number of small warring states arose at the same time. But only one of them - the Inca state in the Cuzco valley - possessing a more perfect organization of the army and the apparatus of power and distinguished by the militancy of its inhabitants, managed to break the resistance of its neighbors and become the dominant force in the region. This happened just a century before the arrival of the Spaniards, in the 15th century. n. NS.

The size of the Inca empire grew at an unprecedented rate. Between 1438 and 1460 Inca Pachacuti conquered most of the mountainous regions of Peru. Under his son Topa Inca (1471 -1493), a significant part of Ecuador and the territory of the state of Chimu were captured, and a little later - the south of the coastal Peruvian zone, the mountains of Bolivia, and the north of Chile. At the head of the huge power was the divine ruler of the Sapaina, who was helped by the hereditary aristocracy associated with the ruler by blood relationship, as well as the priestly caste and a whole army of officials who controlled all aspects of life.

Rural communities bore a heavy burden of all kinds of taxes and labor duties (work on the construction of roads, temples and palaces, in mines, military service, etc.). The population of the newly conquered lands was forcibly displaced from their native places to remote provinces. The empire was connected by an extensive network of stone-paved roads, along which, at certain distances, there were post stations with restrooms and warehouses for food and necessary materials... On the roads, both foot messengers-runners and riders on llamas ply regularly.

Spiritual life and cult issues were entirely in the hands of the priestly hierarchy. The worship of the creator god Viracoche and the celestial planets was carried out in stone temples, decorated with gold inside. Depending on the circumstances, sacrifices to the gods ranged from the usual in such cases llama meat and maize beer to the murder of women and children (during the illness or death of the supreme Inca).

However, this largest and best-organized empire in pre-Columbian America was easy prey for a handful of Spanish adventurers led by Francisco Pizarro in the 16th century. n. NS. The murder of the Inca Atahualpa in 1532 paralyzed the will to resist the local Indians, and the powerful Inca state collapsed in a matter of days under the blows of the European conquerors.

Would you like to surprise your friends with a vacation story and numerous photos of the places you have been? When planning a vacation, remember our story and, perhaps, you will want to visit these particular cities and learn a lot of new things.

# 10 - Brasilia, Brazil

This city originated in the red desert and reached perfection in less than 4 years. He became the capital of the country, a living and breathing organism. This is Brasilia, the 10th item on our list. Conceived and planned by the architect Lucio Costa in 1957, this city is home to many buildings designed by the world famous architect Oscar Niemeyer. From a bird's eye view, it looks like a cross, but to many it resembles a butterfly or an airplane in shape. This layout was criticized by many, but UNESCO declared the city a World Heritage Site.

The main architectural masterpieces of this capital are considered to be the Aurora Palace (the official residence of the President of the Republic is located here), the Republican Cultural Complex, the Cathedral, the Square of the Three Powers (all buildings on it are governmental). In the design of the city, the ideas of Le Corbusier, a French architect, who is rightfully considered the father of modern architecture, were of no small importance. Brasilia is an amazing capital, if only because it was erected in the shortest possible time.

# 9 - Dubai, UAE

Are you faced with the question of where to get a crane for a construction project? Blame Dubai for this. It is estimated that about 25% of all cranes in the world are involved in the construction of this Arab city, and they work around the clock. Crammed with skyscrapers, Dubai is considered the only capital to have a seven-star hotel, the Burj Al Arab, the tallest hotel in the world. This amazing structure is shaped like a sail.

But it also pales in comparison with other buildings that loom on the horizon. These are Hydropolis, the world's first underwater hotel, Burj Dubai, the tallest structure in the world, API World Tower, which will become the tallest hotel in the world in the future, Dubailand, a Disneyland-style amusement park that is expected to surpass Walt's creation. Disney in scope and beauty. Do you want to look into the future with one eye? Look here.

# 8 - Athens, Greece

Acropolis, the heart of ancient Greek civilization. It is here that the architects of the 21st century draw their inspiration. Perhaps the Acropolis gives the entire city an amazing solidity and power. Here you will see the classic Greco-Roman columns that once supported the Parthenon, the most significant of the ancient monuments of Athens, you will see intricate patterns and intricate carvings on their tops. Some people will want to stay here, but if you are longing for something new, turn your gaze to the building of the Athens Academy - it embodied a modern vision of the classical Greco-Roman style. There is also the recently renovated Athens Olympic Stadium. But is there any doubt about what exactly ancient architecture, what has been tested for centuries, attracts numerous tourists here. That is why we have included Athens in the list of the most architecturally interesting capitals.

# 7 - Florence, Italy

The city is considered by many to be the cradle and center of the Italian Renaissance. And, of course, the architecture of most of the buildings in Florence reflects the style of the Renaissance. It is world famous Palazzo Vecchio(Old Palace), where the city hall is located, the Academy of Arts - it is here that you can see David, the greatest creation of Michelangelo, the Uffizi Gallery - one of the oldest museums in the world, the main museum of Florence, the exposition of which consists of masterpieces of the Renaissance. These are also majestic and airy cathedrals, including Santa Maria del Fiore - the largest cathedral in Europe, as well as the Basilica of the Holy Cross, quite big church... A unique attraction in Florence is the Ponte Vecchio - Old Bridge - a medieval building with small shops and workshops on both sides.

# 6 - Rome, Italy

Like Athens, Rome is the cradle of Western civilization, and this is primarily evidenced by its richest architecture. These are true classics: Colosseum, Pantheon, Roman Forum, Temple of Venus in Rome. Later constructions can compete with them in beauty - St.Peter's Square in the Vatican, the Sistine Chapel, National monument Victor Emmanuel II. There are not so many modern buildings here, the fabulous abundance of the ancients, erected in the style of classicism and the Renaissance, is enough. It is thanks to the magnificent architecture that Rome was included by us in the list of the most beautiful capitals.

# 5 - Shanghai, China

China is actively developing its industry today, and Shanghai, one of the main projects, is an absolute evidence of its rapid growth. At the current scale, decisions on the construction of certain buildings are made in a matter of hours, and it takes no more than a week to develop a project (in the West, this will take months and years). The new Pudong district, the international business center of Shanghai, is rapidly developing: here are the most beautiful and most high buildings, including the Rin Mao Tower and the Pearl of the East TV Tower, which houses a shopping center, hotel and observation deck.

Traveling along the river, you can see the past of the city - there are many buildings built in the colonial style, but they are gradually being replaced by modern structures like the Shanghai Grand Theater. Nearby is the construction of what in the near future may become the tallest structure in the world - the building of the World Financial Center. Still not sure where China is heading? Then look.

# 4 - Berlin, Germany

Since 1989, ever since the Wall collapsed, Berlin has been actively involved in the restoration and transformation of its buildings. The most notable and famous are, of course, the Reichstag, which once housed the Nazi parliament. Today it is covered by a new glass dome; the Potsdamer Platz area - previously abandoned, but now renovated, is dominated by the impressive Sony Center and the headquarters of the DaimlerChrysler concern, built over the past five years. Among the newest can be called the building of the new British Embassy, ​​the Jewish Museum, designed by the American architect Daniel Libeskind.

There are also many examples of classical architecture and buildings in the neoclassical style - the Old Museum, the preserved building of the Bode Museum, and the Red City Hall (the old residence of the mayor).

# 3 - Chicago, Illinois

This is not just a city of delicious hot dogs and hot sports fans, here, in the City of Winds, the Chicago school of architecture was born and developed - the source of modern American architecture. After the devastating fire of 1871, which destroyed more than 2,000 acres of various buildings, Chicago was rebuilt. Thanks to the efforts of architects, present-day Chicago arose; there are many memorial structures that the whole world knows about. To understand what this city is like today, it is worth remembering that the very word "skyscraper" first appeared here.

The main attractions of the city are called: Sears Building - the tallest tower in the United States, Wrigley Building - a triangular office building, the headquarters of a chewing gum company, and Marina City - a complex of buildings, quite aptly called "corncob" - his photo adorned the album cover of the rock band Wilco called Yankee Hotel Foxtrot. Moreover, the greatest architect of America, Frank Lloyd Wright, lived and worked here, a lot of houses built according to his designs have survived in the city, another, no less famous architect, Frank Gehry, developed the city center and presented him with a huge Millennium Park.

# 2 - Paris, France

Walking around this city, you catch yourself thinking that you are in the halls of a huge art museum. Here you can find the architecture of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, neoclassicism and art nouveau, it is full of ultra-modern buildings that fit perfectly into the overall picture of the city and remind that this is not a museum after all. Indeed, ex-French President Mitterrand was so imbued with the idea of ​​renewing the city that he authorized the implementation of an architectural project called "Grands Travaux" (it was started in the 80s and its goal was to renew the classic style of the city). As a result, a glass pyramid appeared at the entrance to the Louvre, as well as a number of interesting new architectural structures.

The Pritzker Architecture Prize of 2008 (equated in the circle of architects to the Nobel Prize) went to the Parisian architect Jean Nouvel, whose works include museums, in particular, the Musee du quai Branly, conference rooms, office buildings and residential buildings. If you are a passionate lover of the classics, then in Paris you can appreciate it: the Arc de Triomphe, Notre Dame Cathedral, the Musée d'Orsay ... To see everything, you will need to come back here again.

# 1 - Barcelona, ​​Spain

Can your camera capture happiness? If yes, then it is worth buying new card memory and come to Barcelona. The greatest architects of the world, gone and living now, created this city and gave it a regal look. Start with the Hospital of St. Paul and the Palace of Catalan Music, the creations of Luis Domenech and Montaner. These buildings are UNESCO World Cultural Heritage Sites.

You can admire the art of another famous Catalan architect - Antoni Gaudi. Among his masterpieces are Casa Mila, Park Guel and the Sagrada Familia - Sagrada Familia. Further you can see the work of Santiago Calatrava - his tower Montjuic Communications, as well as the masterpiece of the already mentioned Frank Gehry "Fish", which is located in Port Olympic, the city's water gate. Finally, walk along La Rambla, the market street in the Gothic Quarter, and marvel at the abundance of ancient buildings. It is not for nothing that Barcelona, ​​the focus of classical and modern architecture, crowns our rating of the most beautiful capitals in the world.

The architecture of a modern city is taking shape in tune with the constant development of urban culture, industry, and the growth of society. Social and technological progress accelerates and stimulates the further development of old cities and the emergence of new ones.

City architecture: some general information

Urban construction is designed to expand the infrastructure and living space of a person, to create new architectural complexes. Another, no less important, role is to preserve the historically formed image of the city, to maintain its original atmosphere.

The architecture of a modern city also includes landscaping. Its goal is to create and improve living conditions for citizens, to preserve natural resources within a certain territory.

Many post-Soviet cities were built according to standard designs and therefore are still largely similar to each other. Monotonous Soviet buildings can be found in every CIS country, be it Kazakhstan, Armenia or Russia. But there is one city, with whose unique appearance thousands and thousands of people around the world dream to get to know - this is Moscow.

Moscow city architecture

Moscow is the "center of the world", attracting thousands of tourists every year. Moscow architecture can be called a kind of historical chronicle that captures victories and defeats, sorrows and joys throughout the long life of the capital.

Metropolitan architecture is characterized by directions and images that have been happening over the centuries. All the events taking place on the historical stage of the country were reflected in one way or another in the appearance of our city. The 15th century captured itself for a long time with the stone architecture of the Assumption Cathedral and the Kremlin. The reign of Catherine the Great was remembered for the birth of classicism - the Senate, the Bolshoi Theater, the Pashkov House and the Tsaritsyno Travel Palace.

After the Patriotic War of 1812, the capital was rebuilt. Historical Museum, became a monument of those times. In the 20th century, Art Nouveau appeared, its examples are the hotels National, Metropol, Yaroslavsky railway station. 21st century gave birth to ultra-modern architecture with its skyscrapers, shopping centers and multi-storey offices, which in their own way decorate and complement the multifaceted

Modern architecture as art

The architecture of a modern city is engaged in the formation of the outer living space of people through the construction of new and maintenance of old buildings. This art includes three main aspects:

• Urban planning - creation and reconstruction of buildings.
• The architecture of three-dimensional structures - the design of residential and industrial enterprises.
• Landscape architecture - arrangement of squares, park areas, public gardens.

In addition, the architectural environment has a strong emotional impact on residents. Along with other factors, it contributes to the development of patriotic feelings.

Directions of modern architecture

In different countries, the architecture of a modern city is called differently. We call it "modern", in Germany "Jugendstil", in France "art nouveau". Art Nouveau, as an architectural trend, took shape in the late 19th - early 20th century. It is characterized by a protest against the established, archaic appearance of buildings. During construction in this style, steel, concrete, glass were first used, later plastic and other technological materials. This style is distinguished not only by external aesthetics and thoughtful functionality. The next after modernity, in the 20s of the 20th century, was formed constructivism, which absorbed the "soul" of the victorious proletariat. Its main task is to serve the new production. During construction, reinforced concrete was mainly used. According to the projects of the constructivists, not only factories and factories were created, but also residential buildings, schools, hospitals, and clubs.

The end of the 40s was marked by the emergence of a minimalist trend in architecture; it reached its peak by the 1960s. Minimalists' creed is "Nothing more!" The buildings of this time are laconic, they have no decor and other excesses. The main idea of ​​the minimalist designers is the search for the ideal proportion, the combination of comfort and functionality, in the understanding of that time. The development of modern architecture did not stop there. Soon minimalism outlived its usefulness, and was replaced by the modern hi-tech style, which for many years was entrenched in urban architecture.

High-tech - architecture of a modern city

The formation of this idea was influenced by new technologies accompanying Metal, glass, ultramodern materials and structures, monolithic forms, power and strength embodied in buildings - this is the high-tech style. It includes three subdirections: industrial, bionic and geometric high-tech.

The industrial direction is characterized by a kind of frankness of design. It flaunts all communications, connections, floors, creating decorative and functional structures on their basis.

Geometric high-tech is a variety of geometric shapes, a combination and interweaving of the most unexpected and unusual configurations.

Bionic high-tech is characterized by imitation of the appearance of living nature, harmonization of the appearance of buildings and dwellings with the help of smooth transitions and lines characteristic of those that are common in nature.

The top of the flooded old church is all that remains of the sunken Brazilian city of Petrolandia after the construction of a large hydroelectric power plant. This is the story of another city that was deliberately flooded and disappeared from the face of the earth for man-made reasons.

Heading to Copacabana? If you are looking for a break from the usual hotels, check out the quirky little place called Hostal Las Olas Guesthouse. This is a complex of ten private villas, each of which has a different shape and unique interior (especially the sink stands out among them). Guest House Las Olas has an extravagant Gaudí style and beautiful views. What else can you dream of while traveling?

Places such as Las Lajas Cathedral in Colombia attract not only pilgrims, deeply religious people, but also curious tourists, as well as lovers of beautiful nature and connoisseurs of incredible architecture. The sanctuary of Las Lajas was built in the Gothic style and is one of the most interesting landmarks in Colombia. So beautiful architectural gem located at an altitude of two and a half thousand meters above sea level - on a bridge leading over an abyss in the canyon of the Guatara River, near the border with Ecuador.

Each pilgrim carried bricks to the top of Montserrat to help build this historic sanctuary in Colombia. The Sanctuary of Montserrat is a religious building visible from most of Bogotá. For people from the Colombian capital, the temple is the most sacred place, symbolic of the city. The history of Montserrat Temple dates back to 1640 when it was allowed to build a sanctuary on the mountain. The small chapel was dedicated to the Virgin Morena de Montserrat, and was built in honor of a similar sanctuary that still stands in the mountains outside of Barcelona.

The Curitiba Botanical Garden is a unique attraction dedicated to the natural world. Built in 1991, the garden resembles the French royal gardens - the whole area is flooded with luxurious elegance. Flowers line the paths to the garden, and each hedge is carefully thought out to resemble the gardens of a Versailles garden. The greenhouse itself is a garden highlight, gracefully set against the backdrop of the Curitiba skyline.

The stunning Catholic cathedral was built in the newly created capital of Brazil. Cathedral Brasilia was designed by renowned Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer and is an almost hyperboloid structure that appears to be pinned to the ground. Appearance the building, with its striking shape and magnificent glass ceiling, is as intriguing as its history.

Ghat House in Chile is characterized by amazing design and breathtaking unity with nature. The architects have made every effort to blend harmoniously into the coastal landscape. The mansion literally merges with the coastal slope, giving access to the beach. At the same time, it does not violate the integrity of the coastline, but rather complements it. This project has received many awards at prestigious international competitions.

The most economically and culturally developed regions of South America before the Spanish conquest were the regions corresponding to the modern states of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northern Chile. The works of monumental architecture of ancient Colombia known to date are reduced to several underground tombs between the Magdalena and Cauca rivers and the primitive sanctuaries of San Augustine. The population lived in wooden huts (not preserved). Because of this, the architecture of Colombia is not considered. It is mainly the architecture of the Central Andes that is subject to consideration, that is, the ancient architecture of Peru, which includes the architecture of the plateau and the Pacific coast, and the ancient architecture of the Bolivian plateau. From Ecuador to Chile, the Central Andes stretch over a strip of over 1500 km in length and 75-350 km in width. The Central Andes are separated from Southern Ecuador by several hundred kilometers of wooded mountains and deserted coastline, in the east - the rainforests of the upper Amazon, in the south - the Atacama Desert.

By the III millennium BC. NS. the appearance of agriculture on the coast (cotton, maize). At first, communal farmers lived in small scattered settlements, later, with the development of class society, in the 9th-3rd centuries. BC NS. the first large civilization of Chavin appears, leaving monumental complexes in mountainous and lowland areas. In the IV century. BC BC - X century. n. NS. there is a rapid development and spread of great civilizations on the Pacific coast (the coastal strip is 30-50 km wide), which caused the emergence of large religious and administrative complexes. These civilizations are divided into three groups: the 1st in northern Peru - the Mochica civilization, the 2nd in the center of Peru - the Lima civilization, the 3rd in the south - the Nazca civilization. In the X-XII centuries. the civilizations of the coast were suppressed by the Tiahuanaki aliens who came from the inland, mountainous regions. The Tiahuanaca civilization developed in the area of ​​Lake Titicaca (the heyday of the 8th-11th centuries). In the XIII-XV centuries. once again, the dominant position is occupied by the coastal civilization - the Chimu civilization, which took the place of the Mochica civilization. Since 1470, Chimu and with it vast territories covering modern Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and part of Chile, were conquered by the Incas, who ruled until the Spanish conquest (1533).

In contrast to Central America, bronze was known in the Central Andes. Weaving reached a higher level, cotton and woolen fabrics were produced. Farming was carried out with the help of irrigation systems on the low-lying ocean coast and on artificial terraces along the slopes of the mountains. In the Central Andes, much earlier than in Central America, state formations appeared covering large territories.

The coastal and mountainous regions of the Central Andes differ not only in natural conditions and methods of farming, but also in building materials: on the coast, where there is almost no precipitation, raw brick (adoba) was used for monumental construction, in the mountains - a stone torn into clay solution or hewn, laid dry. The higher technical perfection of cut stone masonry did not correspond, however, to the lower quality of architecture in comparison with Central America. The builders of the Central Andes did not create spatial complexes equal to those of Mexico and Yucatan.

Main distribution Chavin style corresponds to the boundaries of the modern Peruvian department of Ansash. However, even before the spread of the Chavin culture, the area was densely populated. So, for example, in the valley of the Chikama River from 2500 to 1200. BC NS. there was a settlement, the inhabitants of which lived in round and square premises, and since 2000 BC. NS. dwellings were dug in the cultural layer left behind by previous generations. Nearby there is another settlement, in which houses were built from cylindrical adobes on clay mortar.

The Chavin style is named after the place of Chavin de Huantar, one of the centers of development of this culture. The earliest settlement of Chavin is Cerro Sechin. Cerro Sechin is located on a long-fortified granite hill at the confluence of the Sechin and Mosheke rivers. The dwellings and temple platforms were surrounded by walls. There was a cemetery near each fence. Water flowed through the aqueducts from the reservoirs. The barren hillsides were inhabited not only in order to protect the population from enemy invasions and floods, but also in order not to occupy the fertile lands of river valleys. The largest temple platform (1st millennium BC) lies on the northern side of the hill (Fig. 28). It is surrounded by upright hewn and carved granite slabs (1.6 - 4.4 m high). The slabs are interspersed with smaller pieces of hewn granite. The slab reliefs are the earliest examples of monumental sculpture in the Central Andes. The warriors on large slabs seem to be moving from both sides to the wide staircase of the main northern entrance. The rest of the plates are carved with the heads of defeated enemies and chains of vertebrae. The rectangular temple inside the fence had a developed symmetrical layout and was built of conical adobes.

The later temple of Chavin de Huantara (IX-VI centuries BC), located in the mountains (3200 m above sea level), has a completely different look than the temple of Cerro Sechin. The main temple, the so-called Castillo, is a three-storey rectangular building at the base (75 x 72 m), which did not have a single opening, except for the entrance, to which a stone staircase led. Low (1.8 m high) and very narrow (1 - 4.5 m) galleries and rooms were ventilated with special channels. The floors were connected by stairs. The layout is like a maze. The base of the Cyclopean blocks is pierced with drainage channels. The walls expand towards the base. The building is faced with carved stone blocks.

Mochica culture(VI-IV centuries BC - XI century AD) coincides in time with the classical period of the Mayan culture. It was associated with a large state entity covering the area between the Kasma and Pacasmayo rivers. The ruling elite organized large masses of people for the construction of grandiose irrigation structures: reservoirs, canals, aqueducts, dams. And now in the valley of the river. The Cumbre Chikama Canal is used for a length of 113 km. Aqueduct Ascona north of the river. Chikama was laid on a 1400 m long embankment, in the valley of the Nepenya River there are the remains of a giant dam.

29. Urine. Pyramid of the Sun, c. 100-900 Modern look, plan

The structures of Mochica were built from raw bricks. Just as in Central America, stepped pyramids (huacas) were erected, which differed in that, in addition to the cult purpose (sanctuaries were built on top of them), at the foot of the pyramids there were burials of the nobility (apparently, a relic of the community's ancestral cemeteries). Pyramids were usually 4 to 30 m high. The largest surviving - pyramid of the sun(about 100-900) is located on the banks of the river Urine... The river washed away half of the hill, which is a crumbling pyramid, but the rest of it testifies to the grandeur of the structure. The pyramid is 41 m high and 136 x 228 m at the base. The walls of the cluster of buildings at its top were covered with frescoes. Pyramid E (Fig. 29), consisting of 7 ledges, was moved to the corner of the large ledge (5 ledges) platform C, due to which vast terraces were formed in front of the pyramid from the south and west. From the north, a wide staircase A led to the pyramid, in front of which there was platform B. To the east, about 0.5 km from the pyramid of the Sun, there was the pyramid of the Moon (both names are modern), which is apparently a palace platform.

The dwellings of the nobility of the Mochica period are being reconstructed on the basis of ceramic vases found in burials. The houses were located on a hill, divided into terraces and surrounded by a thick mud wall (Fig. 30). Ordinary farmers settled at the foot of the hill. Inside the walls at the bottom of the hill lived servants, and at the top, wealthy landowners. Each house had a kind of large, open portico.

Perhaps the builders of Mochica were also aware of the wedge-shaped vault. A tomb covered with such a vault was discovered in the Chikama Valley. However, the rule was the use of a false code.

During the period of the Tiahuanaki conquests, the large and fortified pyramids located on the hills of the dwellings were not built. Near the roads, which by that time connected the coastal centers located in the river valleys, huge rectangular complexes surrounded by adobe walls began to be built, consisting of symmetrically located rooms, corridors and courtyards grouped around small platforms. An example is Huaca Dragon(circa 1100) in the Trujillo valley, whose walls, enclosing regular rows of dwellings, measure 55 x 59 m. The outer surface of the walls, made of molded and painted clay, contains repeated representations of animals (Fig. 31). The platform inside the complex has two tiers, decorated with molded friezes.

32. Chan-Chan, XIII-XV centuries. 1 - city plan; 2 - wall decoration; 3 - the second palace; 4 - the first palace; 5 - Ole group

The capital Chimu civilization, on the territory roughly coinciding with Mochica, was Chan-Chan. The ruins of the city occupy about 28 km 2. The city had a harbor, consisting of rectangular basins, with the outside open to the ocean. The indoor pools had sluices. The city and its surrounding fields were abundantly irrigated thanks to a 115 km long canal that connected the Moche and Chikama rivers. All buildings were built from adobes. Chan-Chan was surrounded by walls and consisted of 10-11 large complexes, apparently serving, as in Tenochtitlan, for housing for noble families. Each complex was usually rectangular in plan, and the entire city was regularly planned out (Fig. 32). The complexes were separated by narrow lanes. Aerial surveys make it possible to establish that the city consists of at least three superimposed networks of rectangular complexes, the existence of which cannot be suspected on the spot. New complexes were built on top of the smaller old ones, cutting them, not following them in terms of the location of the premises and along the length. The most explored are the so-called first and second palaces and the Ole group. The less preserved palaces were probably built earlier than the Ole group. The palaces are surrounded by a double row of mud walls 1.5-1.8 m high, with only one entrance from the north - the sunniest side. The walls not only isolated the group of people living in them, but also protected the dwellings from the prevailing southwestern sea wind. The structures inside the walls were regularly planned out. Large and small courtyards with open corners surrounded rows of similar, single-row, cellular small rooms, illuminated by doorways. Their layout is close to the palaces of Central America. The prevailing north orientation of the courtyards was necessary due to the frequent fogs. In addition to the dwellings, the enclosing walls contained reservoirs, small huacas and gardens. The gardens were built in large, stepped pits dug out, which are like the reverse image of a stepped pyramid. The plants were thus protected from the wind and were closer to the groundwater. In addition to the ancestral uac, as in Tenochtitlan, there were temple central pyramids. The analogies in the structures of the dwelling and the temple cannot be explained by the connections of Central and South America. Closeness is due to similarity building materials, climatic conditions and the semblance of a social order.

If in the first and second palaces the accumulation of regular buildings is accidental, then the Ole group has a strict symmetry and seems to be a palace-type building, made according to a predetermined plan in one construction season. This most intricate complex appeared, probably, immediately before the destruction of the city of Inkali. The complex includes 33 houses, consisting of two to five rooms. The houses stand on a low platform around a large, rectangular courtyard. The walls of the Chan-Chan buildings are decorated with niches, ornaments made of protruding adobas and mainly flat reliefs carved in raw clay according to patterns. Various combinations of carved patterns give the impression of Peruvian fabric, which was stronger in antiquity, since the ornament was painted. They are distinguished from the Huaca Dragon scenery by sharper outlines, rounded corners are absent.

Chan-Chan was a relatively young city, its age is hardly more than 300 years. The assertion is based on the fact that the number of his pyramids (uak) is relatively small and they are small. Another, minor city of Chimu culture - Pakatnamu had six large pyramids, one of which contained the core of the Mochica culture, but only one clan complex.

Lima culture in many respects repeats the structures of Mochica. It is also characterized by the erection of pyramids from adob, at the foot of which burials were arranged.

The largest city of culture in Lima, which existed during the time of the Incas, was Pachacamac, the city, in the main temple of which there was a deity - an oracle. Currently Pachacamac is covered with sand. The Incas did not destroy the city, but erected two new large religious buildings in it: the Temple of the Sun and the Monastery of the Virgins of the Sun. All buildings were built of adobes, fashioned by hand or made in shapes, only the basements were made of stone. The temple of Pachacamac (Lord of the World) was located on the edge of the city facing the sea, in its southern corner (Fig. 33). The temple - the most ancient part of the city - coincides with the cultures of Mochica and Nazca. Both the temple site and the city were walled. The temple was a platform of eight steps (on the north side), which had a height of about 1 m. The surface of the steps was covered with a layer of clay, smoothed and painted with mythological subjects. The painting was renewed at least 16 times. At the top of the platform were various residential and religious buildings grouped around the courtyard. Among them there was a dark sanctuary in which several people could hardly fit. There was a wooden cult statue - an oracle, with which only the priests who entered the sanctuary with the gifts of the pilgrims communicated. In front of the statue, the blood of people and animals was sacrificed. The cemetery for nobles and priests was located at the eastern side of the platform. From the east, the temple was adjoined by a wide esplanade with columnar galleries, under the canopies of which merchants and pilgrims were housed. On the esplanade there were also houses for their residence. Columnar galleries are a unique phenomenon in the architecture of South America, and their appearance is certainly caused by the special demands of Pachacamac life. The city itself, measuring 6 x 3 km, was divided by two streets, roughly following the directions of the world. Its quarters contained palace-like structures and numerous groups of adjoining rooms, accessible only from above. The combination of a cult center and residential structures is consistent with the type of city represented by Chan Chan.

Nazca culture also characterized by the construction of large pyramids of adoba. So in Cahuachi, on the middle course of the Nazca River, pyramidal platforms up to 20 m in height were erected, crowned with groups of rectangular rooms. However, the most notable feature of the architecture is the construction of huge monumental images. They are located on a plateau above the Palpa and Ingenio rivers. The images are formed by a network of pedestrian paths strewn with light sand and gravel paths, on the sides of which there are stone pillars. The territory occupied by them is about 100 km long and several kilometers wide. The tracks did not serve to communicate between any specific points. The drawings are in the form of straight ribbons, spirals, figures of fish, insects, birds, plants, made in colossal sizes. Ritual processions apparently moved along the lines of the drawings. To some extent, the images were astronomical designations, some of the drawings are associated with stars in orientation and, possibly, depict constellations.

The construction of the figures required the efforts of many generations, the networks of drawings are superimposed on each other. For complex drawings, there were some auxiliary constructions such as fixed proportions, as evidenced by the traces of additional straight lines.

Tiahuanaku culture originally occupied the basin of Lake Titicaca. The earliest settlement was the city of Pukara in the north of the lake (5th century BC - 5th century AD). The heyday of Pukar dates back to the 1st century. n. NS. Shortly before the extinction of the city, around the 3rd century, in the south of the lake, Tiahuanaku (older than Taipikala) was founded, after which the whole culture is called. The flourishing of the city dates back to the VIII-XI centuries. After the V century. the Tiahuanaku style spreads in the regions of the Montaro River and the city of Cuzco. The date of the fall of the city is unknown, it is unclear why it was abandoned. It can only be established that on the coast, the Tiahuanacu culture continued until the beginning of the 13th century.

The center of Pukar consisted of small, irregular, thatched chambers made of adobes, radially located along the outlines of C. Each had one or two altars. Cells surrounded a deep square courtyard. To date, only well-hewn red sandstone foundation slabs have survived.

Tiahuanaku(3825 m above sea level) for five centuries it was plundered by numerous treasure hunters, in addition, after the Spanish conquest, its ruins served as a quarry. The destruction of the city is such (from the stone buildings there were scattered separate pieces, the earthen platforms were dug up) that only approximately on the stone foundations, in places dismantled, one can imagine the center of the city. Its ruins occupy an area much smaller than the corresponding ensembles in Central America and on the coast of South America (Moche). The city center consists of three groups of buildings oriented to the east (Fig. 34). They consist of earthen platforms lined with well-worked stone. Two of them - Akapana and Kalasasaya are separated by an ancient road. Both groups were surrounded by a 50 m wide moat that maintained a constant water table. The moat, along one of the tributaries, communicated in the north with the Tiahuanacu River. The third group - Puma-Punku (gate of the Puma) was 1.5 km south-west of the first two and was connected with them by roads intersecting at right angles. The center of the city was in the opinion of the Indians the center of the world, as indicated by its ancient name - Taipikala - "stone in the center".

The Akapana earthen platform measures 210 x 210 x 15 m. Based on 17th century texts. They are trying to reconstruct it as a pyramidal platform, crowned on the western side with a narrow stone building. It is believed that Akapana was a walled citadel with an entrance from the east. The citadel housed a water reservoir, premises for housing, warehouses. The Kalasasaya appears to be a U-shaped platform 135 x 130 m. Early masonry was discovered here, akin to that of the fence at Cerro Sechin. Prismatic lava pillars stand at a distance from each other, and the gaps between them are filled dry with small pieces of lava. The stone is carefully processed with stone tools. Kalasasaya, apparently, was a building dedicated to a cult associated with astronomical observations. A wide staircase flanked by two powerful pillars leads to the platform, the opening of the entrance gate at its top is very narrow, it allows only one person to pass. On the territory of Kalasasaya there is the Gate of the Sun, which is a monolithic structure 3 x 4 m. The gate was once surrounded by statues. The composition of the gate is monumental and extremely simple, above the opening (width 1.67 m) a wide, 0.9 m high frieze covered with a flat relief stretches. the squat figure of a god.

Puma Punku is a double pyramid. Blocks have been preserved here - parts of one or more buildings, scattered in such a disarray that some scholars considered Puma-Punku a suddenly abandoned stone workshop. The largest part measures 3.64 x 3.30 x 0.5 m. The heaviest block weighs about 200 tons. The blocks are hewn with the help of bronze tools with amazing care and precision. They were firmly held together by stone spikes and bronze brackets (a T-shaped depression remained in each block). Furrows are made on the blocks for lifting and placing stones in place. The holes for the wooden pins were used to attach strips of gold reliefs.

The best preserved, which has absorbed the traditions of previous cultures, is Inca architecture... At the beginning of the 15th century. small state of the Incas (formed in the XII century), concentrated around ancient settlement Cuzco, begins wars of conquest. The success of the wars was facilitated not only by the use of bronze weapons, but also by the centralized system of government. By the end of the XV century. the Incas possessed a vast territory from the city of Quito to southern Chile. The Inca state was the largest in ancient America. It was covered with a network of paved roads. Two parallel straight main highways ran along the mountains and along the coast for 6000 km. They were connected by cross roads. Inns were set up along the roads. Stone and suspension bridges, stairs were cut in the rocks. A whole chain of fortresses was built, connected by fire alarms. The cities were distinguished by landscaping: drinking water flowed along the streets, in specially laid ditches.

In the capital Cuzco only the Inca gentlemen or especially noble leaders subject to them could live. The original center of the city was a small, elevated square with the Temple of the Sun and the Inca palace next to it. In the XIV century. the city is expanding (Fig. 35). Each Supreme Inca no longer occupies the ancestral quarter of the ancestors, but builds its own ancestral complex. In the middle of the 15th century. in the north-west of the city, the Saksahuaman fortress was founded. At the same time, to the north of the hill, a swamp was drained and a new community center was founded with new palace quarters of the Inca rulers. Behind them is a new temple, the House of Knowledge and warehouses. Currently, on the site of this center there is a cathedral square and a cathedral. TO central square four main roads converge, connecting the capital with the provinces. Here folk festivals took place, to which the mummies of the Inca rulers and their wives were brought from the Temple of the Sun on a stretcher. On the square in front of the Temple of the Sun, only cult ceremonies took place. The city was divided into quarters - the ancestral complexes of the Incas. Each block was surrounded by a high stone wall with only one gate. Inside were thatched one-story buildings with doors facing the courtyards. The quarters were divided by narrow streets. The main streets were wide enough; so in Quito the main street had a width of 15 m. The walls facing the streets consisted of polygonal blocks or squares of black lava, laid dry and equipped with spikes and nests to make the masonry earthquake-resistant. The openings had a trapezoidal, narrowing stone lintel shape. Trapezoidal niches were the only decoration of the building.

Near the main square was the House of Knowledge - the Inca Academy. Here, the Inca youths were trained in government, philosophy, economic management of the entire vast territory in order to become high officials. The professions were hereditary, in particular, only an Inca could become an architect.

In the middle of the 15th century. the Temple of the Sun was also rebuilt. The temple was 100 meters long and 80 meters wide. The foundations of the enclosing walls have survived, striking in the thoroughness and precision of the masonry, especially perfect in the apse end of the temple, preserved to a height of 6 m. Outside, along the top of the wall, there was a frieze of forged gold plates. The temple, like the dwelling houses, was covered with thatch. The restrained exterior design of the temple did not match the luxury of the interiors. In the main room, the first rays of the sun through the open door fell on a huge golden disc, and on either side stood golden and silver statues of deities. The walls of this and other sanctuaries were covered with gold plates. In one of them, the mummies of the Incas and their wives sat on golden benches. Next to the temple was the Golden Garden, where all objects (trees, flowers and people) were made of silver and gold.

Fortress Saxahuaman(Falcon's Nest) in the north-west of Cuzco was the most significant fortress, seikhhaus and treasury of the Incas (Fig. 36). The fortress was located on a steep mountain, bounded on both sides by deep river slopes, on the third, northern, along a saddle accessible for passage, it was fenced in by three rows of zigzag walls towering one above the other. Each wall was about 3 km long and contained about 40 ledges. The walls are about 3 m thick and 6.5 - 3 m high. According to legend, the fortress was built by 20 thousand slaves over 15 years. Until now, the locals call her "Tired Stone" or "Bloody Stone". The architects were the Incas: Guallpa Rimachi, Maricanchi, Akahuana and Calla Kunchui. The walls of the fortress were piled dry from huge polygonal blocks of gray granite, fitted so precisely that, in the words of one researcher, it was impossible to "stick a hair" between them. Some of the stones were up to 3 m wide and 6 m high. Each wall had a narrow trapezoidal passage closed by a rising stone slab. All three aisles were not aligned on the same axis. There were three towers inside the fortress: one round and two rectangular (the foundations survived). The noble Incas lived in the round tower. Inside, its walls were trimmed with silver and gold and decorated with images of animals and plants. At the base of the tower there was an abundant well, into which water was supplied from a very great depth.

Round living quarters are found not only in Saxahuaman. In one of the mountain settlements near Cusco in Runtu Rakkay, there is a round house, which encloses a round courtyard 11 m in diameter. The living quarters consist of three rooms curved in an arc, the doors of which open into the courtyard. The house is a variant of a generic residential complex of large cities. Round structures appeared in South America much earlier than the time of the Inca reign. Recently in the mountains east of Trujillo in the area of ​​the river. Marañon was discovered the city of Great Pahaten, conquered and plundered by the troops of the Inca Tupac Yupanqui (1471-1493). The city has a round stone, apparently a cult building with a diameter of 14 m. Its walls have survived to a height of 5 m and were decorated with relief images of condors. The building was cut by a staircase 4 m wide. According to the conquerors, the city had many round buildings and temples crowning the hills.

The other two towers of Saxahuaman housed the garrison of the Incas. Saxahuaman was not only a fortress, but also a place of worship (the house of the Sun), in addition, military equipment, tribute from the conquered provinces and treasures of the Incas were kept here, hidden, according to legend, in the labyrinths of dungeons under the fortress.

The Incas not only used the terrain for their structures. Often the rocks themselves were used for the construction of buildings. So, from the north, in front of the Saxahuaman fortress, the so-called Throne of the Incas was carved out of the rock, consisting of steps leading to the platform. It was at a height of 20 m, and from it the front square in front of the fortress was perfectly visible. Behind the throne there were sacred rocks with ladders, niches and grooves carved into them near the caves. Such rocks were associated with the cult of the dead, sacrificial blood flowed down the grooves inside the caves. It is possible that the round ledge of the temple at Cuzco encompassed such a rock.

The cities, which had a shorter construction period than Cusco, and a smoother surface, were built according to a regular plan (Pikillacta and Viracochapampa, about 1500; rice. 37). In the center of the city there is a rectangular square around which the family quarters are located.

Small mountain settlements had a regular layout if they were located on a flat surface. This was the settlement at the fortress Ollantaytambo(end of the 15th century), where the valley of the Urubamba River expands significantly. The fortress was located above the settlement. Narrow streets 2-3 m wide, it was divided into 18 blocks, enclosing a large square area (Fig. 38). The quarter contained two complexes separated by a blank wall. In the middle of each complex there was a large courtyard, into which the doors of four houses with gable roofs and stone pediments opened. The houses were built of rough stone and mud. The walls of the houses had niches inside. The mountain slopes around the settlement were broken up by agricultural terraces.

The settlement - a fortress, for which it was impossible to create a flat area, is Machu Picchu(fig. 39). It is located on a saddle (2520 m above sea level) between two mountains in the bend of the Urubamba River. The fortress was connected with the neighboring fortresses by roads laid in the rocks. The almost steep slopes to the river were covered with terraces with vegetable gardens. Higher up, in less steep terrain, were residential buildings. They either surrounded small courtyards, to which they were faced by the longitudinal side containing the doors, or were extended by a chain. The openings were trapezoidal. The roof was attached to the pediments by means of special stone ledges, to which a wooden lathing was tied. Houses were built either from rubble on clay, or from well-hewn stones, without mortar.

The steep relief almost made it impossible to build streets, the buildings were connected by more than 100 staircases, partially carved into the rocks. Among the village was a large rectangular square stretching from north to south. Residential buildings surrounded it from the south and west, in the east there were religious buildings. Apparently similar in type to the Temple of the Sun in Cusco was the building to the south of the square, containing a tower-like, open upward ledge. Inside it was a sacred rock, in the deep niches of the walls around it, apparently, mummies were kept. The structure was built of beautifully hewn stone blocks. Among the cult buildings on the east side of the square, on the very high point the settlement was located inti-huatana (solar shackles) - a tall conical stone on a stone platform. Similar stones were found among the sacred rocks near Saxahuaman and in other Inca fortresses. A number of magical rites at this stone were supposed to prevent the disappearance of the sun during the long winter. The buildings at the foot of the “sun shackles” are distinguished by the special care of the masonry and the large size of the stones. If each individual building of Machu Picchu does not seem to be an outstanding architectural monument, then all together they leave a deep impression.

42. Kacha. Temple of Viracocha, 15th century General view and plan

Several palace and cult buildings with excellent layout are located on the islands Lake Titicaca and southwest of the lake. On Lake Titicaca on the island of the same name at the end of the 15th century. was built a two-story stone Pilko Kaima palace(fig. 40). On the ground floor, relatively small, symmetrically located chambers are separated by powerful walls and connected by very narrow corridors. A number of cameras are devoid of natural light. The premises on the second floor are much larger. Here is a terrace open to the lake. The floor slab consisted of flat, well-fitted slabs. The facades have a strictly symmetrical structure, for the creation of which false, blind openings are arranged.

Another structure is Monastery of the Maidens of the Sun on Coati Island, end of the 15th century. (fig. 41). The building encompasses a large rectangular courtyard on three sides, the facades are divided by numerous niches, giving a complex chiaroscuro pattern, reminiscent of the complex geometric breakdown of Tiahuanacu buildings.

V Quality the ruins of the complex have been preserved Viracocha temple, significantly different from the temples of other cities (Fig. 42). The temple looks like a long four-nave building, oriented from north to south. It consisted of three tiers, with a sanctuary in the upper one. Along the longitudinal axis of the temple, there are often 15-meter-high pillars with a highly elongated rectangular cross-section. Round columns divide the space between the pillars and the outer walls. The entire building was covered with a gable roof. Its base, which is 2 m in height, was built of stone slabs, above there is a masonry made of adobes. Six rectangular courtyards are located at right angles to the temple mow, formed by rectangular buildings with a gable end, apparently the dwellings of priests and pilgrims. Further south, behind the wall of the sacred site, is also a regularly planned group of circular dwellings, built on clay from torn stone.

Apparently, round and rectangular dwellings were the prototype of the round and less often rectangular tombs in the area of ​​Lake Titicaca - chullps. Chullpa - tall tower made of precisely fitted blocks of stone, had a burial chamber at the top. Most researchers date the tombs to the time of the Incas.

The monumental architecture of the most developed countries of Ancient America is characterized by heavy, overwhelmingly massive structures with relatively underdeveloped interiors, which is explained not only by the low level of construction technology. The exploiting elite, which had barely separated from the clan, needed expressive, most illustrative means of subjugating the ordinary population. Giant pyramids decorated with intricate decor, long palaces piling up on high platforms, stadiums with temples made up the grandiose ensembles surrounding the inhabitants of Central America. In South America, majestic adob pyramids were built on the coast. In the mountains - the colossal, closed walls of palaces and sanctuaries, decorated with gold plates, were supposed to testify to the greatness and inaccessibility of their rulers.

The chapter "Architecture of South America (Central Andes)" of the book "General history of architecture. Volume I. Architecture Of the ancient world". Author: E.D. Kvitnitskaya; edited by O.Kh. Khalpakhchna (editor-in-chief), E.D. Kvitnitskaya, V.V. Pavlova, A.M. Pribytkova. Moscow, Stroyizdat, 1970